Guidelines and Best Practices for the Design, Construction and Maintenance of Sustainable Trails for All Ontarians - Trails for All Ontarians Collaborative 2006
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"A world-class system of diversified trails, planned and used in an environmentally responsible manner, that enhances the health and prosperity of all Ontarians." [1], p.11
The Ontario Trails Strategy describes our vision for trails in Ontario. It recognizes the many benefits of trails for health and prosperity, and highlights the importance of environmental protection. Working towards this vision ensures that Ontario trails will encourage the preservation and appreciation of the widely varied environments found throughout our province. It also emphasizes the need for a diverse network of trails across Ontario so that trail users of all abilities and interests will have access to trail opportunities within their own community.
Trails are critically important to the health and quality of life of the people of Ontario . Trails provide everyone, young children to older adults from all backgrounds and abilities, with the opportunity to be physically active. A physically active lifestyle improves physical and mental health and quality of life, while decreasing the risk of the most common health problems [2]. Trails also offer the opportunity to experience different environments. These experiences encourage greater understanding of our diverse province and the importance of protecting our outdoor environments. Working to provide trail opportunities strengthens our communities by encouraging partnerships, promoting stewardship and recognizing the generosity of landowners. Trails provide economic benefits as well. Trail users, both residents and visitors, contribute more than $2 billion per year to the provincial economy [3].
Certainly, the health and quality of life benefits of trails are critically important. However, from an environmental perspective there is another key reason to have trails. A carefully designed and constructed trail minimizes the impact that people have on surrounding or more sensitive terrain . A well-constructed and maintained trail ensures that trail users stay on a tread that is suitable for their use. This protective function of a trail, through a concentration of use in appropriate terrain, is often overlooked but critically important.
The Ontario Trails Strategy provides a challenging and exciting vision. The goal is to ensure that our outdoor environments are protected and preserved, while at the same time making it possible for all Ontarians to experience the joys of our great outdoors . Historically, many groups focused primarily on one of these goals. That is, some groups focused on the protection and preservation of our outdoor environments, others worked to provide a variety of trail experiences in a community and still others worked to provide a specific type of trail experience in all areas of the province. These guidelines, and the best practices for achieving them, are designed for trails that permit human-powered uses. It is essential, that trail groups obtain all necessary permits and approvals before any work to design, construct or maintain a trail is undertaken. Permits and approvals will be required from the land owner, and may also be required from the Conservation Authority, local Ministry of Natural Resources Office or other land management agencies which have jurisdiction over the land where the trail will be located.
The guidelines and best practices outline in this resource encourage everyone involved in trails to reach for the vision of the Ontario Trails Strategy to ensure that our trails:
Additional information on these twin goals of sustainable and universal design can be found in the following section (Sustainable and Universal Design).
Ontario is recognized around the world for the cultural diversity of its population , particularly in the largest urban areas. The diverse abilities that Ontarians have for using trails is recognized less often . Our population is getting older. As the "baby boomers" reach retirement age, over 20% of our population will be older adults. As a group, these older adults will have better health and greater resources to remain actively involved in their community. However, ageing is often accompanied by a decrease in endurance, strength and balance that can make the use of some trails more difficult.
The proportion of our population that lives with a disability is also increasing. On average, over 40% of Ontario households include someone with a disability [4]. Clearly, if we are to reach the vision established through the Ontario Trails Strategy, our trails must provide lifelong opportunities for people of all backgrounds, ages and abilities .
Providing trail opportunities for people of all abilities is strategically important. Our communities develop richer and more meaningful relationships when efforts are focused on providing trail opportunities to all citizens . Trails are unique in that they provide a recreation opportunity that can be universally enjoyed with little or no per use cost. The more people who use trails, the greater will be public support for protecting and enhancing trail opportunities. Including a broad spectrum of people among trail users also greatly increases the pool of volunteers who have been, and will continue to be, the backbone of trails in Ontario.
The widespread availability of trail opportunities is also recognized as a key strategy for encouraging healthy, active lifestyles. The vision of Active 2010 [5] is to create a culture of physical activity and sport participation for all Ontarians that contributes directly to their own health as well as the health of their communities. The goal is to enhance opportunities for daily physical activity and quality sport activities so that more Ontarians will value a healthy active lifestyle and participate on a regular basis. Of course, people who are more fit and physically active are much less likely to require medical treatment or have chronic conditions. Active people of all ages and abilities are also more likely to live independently and be involved in their community. Reducing health care costs and enabling people to live actively at home benefits us all.
The development of these guidelines and best practices for Ontario trail design, construction and maintenance provides a common foundation for the creation of trails that are sustainable and universal . Our hope is that trail groups will use these guidelines and best practices as the minimum standard for the construction of new trails and the maintenance of existing trails, so that all Ontarians can enjoy and support enhanced trail opportunities throughout our province.
Forests are the dominant characteristic of Ontario's landscape . There are four forest regions in Ontario [6]:
Each forest region is distinct in terms of the parent material (bedrock, glacial deposits, soil) found in the area, the type(s) of forest and other flora that grow in that environment, as well as the fauna that the area can support. Between the four regions, Ontario is home to more than 3,200 species of plants, 160 species of fish, 80 species of amphibians and reptiles, 400 species of birds, and some 85 species of mammals [6].
Each region has its own specific challenges for the design and construction of recreational trails. Understanding the forest type and the soils associated with each region will help the trail builder construct trails that are sustainable and universally designed.
The Hudson Bay Lowlands are a low relief wetland . This area is primarily muskeg, with thousands of small lakes and ponds. It also contains all of Ontario's tundra [6]. Forest cover, generally tamarack and black spruce, is present on less than 20 percent of the land. The Hudson Bay Lowlands are home to woodland caribou, polar bear, arctic fox, arctic hare and millions of migratory birds and waterfowl.
The terrain in this area is extremely sensitive to human impact. Walking in the same place twice on sphagnum and mosses can leave a footprint that lasts for years. Wet areas and water will also be major concerns for trail builders. When a trail is provided, very careful attention will be required to ensure that it is in an appropriate location. Trail construction techniques such as boardwalks (post and deck or puncheon design) and turnpikes will be very commonly used. The need for long sections of constructed tread makes it more costly to build and maintain recreation trails in this region.
Ontario's boreal forest comprises the bulk of terrain in northern Ontario. Although relatively "young" in geological terms, it is the largest forest region in Ontario , stretching roughly from the shore of Lake Superior to the Hudson Bay Lowlands [6]. The boreal forest, which is a combination of coniferous and deciduous trees, contains 59% of Ontario's forests [6]. The most common tree species include white and black spruce, tamarack, balsam fir, jack pine, white birch and poplar. The boreal forest is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna. Jays and other songbirds, moose, black bear and beaver, and ferns, mosses, and shrubs are commonly found.
Large sections of the boreal forest are comprised of exposed bedrock from the Canadian Shield covered by thin layers of soil and moss . Smaller lowland peat bogs and fertile uplands can also be found. The typically sparse soil makes the mosses and ground vegetation extremely fragile. Trails must be very carefully located on appropriate terrain. The construction of trails in the boreal forest will require a variety of techniques due to the many changes in topography, soils and vegetation. Although not as wet as the Hudson Bay Lowlands, the boreal forest often requires the use of similar structures to cross wet areas (e.g., boardwalks, turnpikes). These structures are typically combined with other trail construction techniques, such as bridges and trail tread water drainage structures. In many areas, trail construction can be completed with the natural material, such as logs and rock, which is usually readily available.
Forest fires, floods, windstorms and insect damage play a prominent role in the ecology of the boreal forest [6]. These natural forces affect all of the trees in a specific area, opening large patches that are favourable for new growth. The result is a natural patchwork of even-aged forests that may be less pleasing to trail users.
The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence forest extends across central Ontario from the St. Lawrence River in the east to Lake Huron and beyond Lake Superior in the west. This area is a transitional zone between the deciduous forests of the south and the coniferous forests of the north . As a result, there are a wide variety of landscapes, plants and animals throughout this region. Many of Ontario's key geological features, such as the Oak Ridge Moraine and Niagara Escarpment, are found in this region.
The forest in this region is widely varied . Coniferous trees, such as pine, spruce, hemlock, aspen and cedar, combine with deciduous trees, such as birch, maple, and oak. Species more common in the boreal forest, such as white and black spruce, jack pine, aspen and white birch also exist here. Fungi, ferns, mosses and shrubs are also common [6]. The fauna of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence region is also widely varied. Some of the most common species are deer, moose, black bear, beaver, coyotes, skunks, racoons, and porcupines. There are also a wide variety of birds, fish and insects.
The full range of trail construction techniques will be used in developing trails throughout the varied landscapes of this region. The physical landscape is very diverse, and each section should be fully evaluated to determine what type of trail and which construction techniques are best suited to the natural environment. The complexity of trail construction within such a varied environment is compounded by the relatively high population (both resident and visitor) that can be expected to use trails within this region. Trail designers and builders should expect high levels of trail use throughout this region which will require trails to be built to a higher standard to ensure sustainability.
The deciduous forest region is located in south-western and south-central Ontario. It stretches primarily along the shores of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, extending up along the south-eastern shore of Lake Huron . The trees found here are at the northern end of the deciduous forest regions common in the United States. Common tree species, such as maple, birch and oak combine with more "exotic" species such as walnut and sycamore.
The plants and animals found in the deciduous region are the most diverse in Ontario. Although most of the original deciduous forest was cleared by early settlers for agriculture, a patchwork of tree lots remain, primarily on lands that are not suitable for farming. Tree planting and forest restoration programs have also helped to increase the forest cover in the deciduous region, for the benefit of Ontario's residents almost all (over 90% [6]) of whom live in this region.
Trail use in deciduous forest will be extremely heavy due to the proximity of densely populated urban areas. As a result, high standards of trail design, construction, and maintenance will always be required. For example, it will more commonly be necessary to install a sub-base of gravel to permit a high level of use in areas with wet soil conditions. Keeping users on the trail and using techniques to minimize environmental impacts will be a major focus for the trail builder. The terrain in this region is also more varied, making it more likely that trail designs will have to consider more changes in elevation than would be encountered in the lowland or boreal regions.
Understanding different soils and how they affect and are affected by trail use is extremely important for designing trails that are environmentally sustainable. Soils affect water drainage, erosion potential, and tread material. Every type of tread material will react differently to the forces of trail use, such as compaction, displacement and erosion . How different tread materials, such as soil, rock, sand, clay, etc., will respond to trail use in both wet and dry conditions needs to be clearly understood.
The best soils for constructing a trail are primarily clay-based with a significant amount of small, fractured rock pieces . These soils can be compacted during trail construction to provide a trail tread that is resistant to the forces applied by trail users and environmental conditions (e.g., rain). While clay provides for strong cohesion between the soil particles, too much clay can make for a very slippery surface when in wet conditions. Designing the route for a trail should include careful consideration of what soils and other tread materials will be available or required . Constructed tread surfaces, such as boardwalks, are often required on trails built on soils with high sand, silt or loam content.
Local authorities, such as offices of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Ministry of Natural Resources or a Conservation Authority, can help you to evaluate the soils found along the trail route. Staff from these agencies can also be an excellent resource for information on recommended protective measures for the local soil conditions. If suitable soils for a trail tread cannot be found in your area, you will have to construct an alternate tread surface (e.g., boardwalk) or modify the soil composition by adding fractured rock (e.g., ¾ minus crushed aggregate) or clay [7] as necessary. Adding fractured rock pieces (e.g., mechanically crushed rock) can make natural soils much more stable, easier to compact and resistant to the forces of trail use. Keep in mind, any material imported to the trail environment must be approved by the local Conservation Authority . In some cases it may not be possible to build a trail if the soils and environmental conditions are too delicate.
In Ontario, the type of tree growing on a site can help you to determine the type of soil found in that area . For example, White Pine trees grow in sandy soil, White Birch is found in rocky soil and Cedar trees indicate wet soil. Soil types vary throughout the four regions of Ontario. Some soil types can be the same for hundreds of kilometres while others can change within metres of each other.
Use soil maps to accurately identify the location of soil types in your specific trail area and to determine their suitability for different trail uses and structures. Soil maps are available at most local Ontario government offices such as Ministry of Agriculture and Food or Ministry of Natural Resources and some libraries. However, this information should be supplemented with an on-site examination of the area .
In most soil conditions, avoid placing a trail on flat, low-lying terrain or very steep grades . Depending on site conditions and type of trail use, trails in these areas will usually have much more significant water drainage and erosion problems.
Soil surface and subsurface colour can be used to evaluate soil drainage. A uniform subsurface soil colour (yellow, brown, red) usually indicates adequate drainage. However, if the soil is grey or olive coloured with some mottles (spotted with concentrations of red, yellow, brown, or bluish-grey soil), the soil drainage is more likely poor . Poorly draining soils will rarely result in a sustainable trail tread.
Examine the trail area for excessive surface water during the spring thaw or after a heavy rain . At these times, drainage problems will be easiest to see. Avoid building trails in areas with poor drainage or a high water table, especially if the depth to the water table, bedrock, or hard clay is less than 40 cm (16 inches). Shallow soils not only have drainage problems, but also tend to erode easily and may slide when walked on . When choosing a trail site, favour locations that have a soil depth of at least 1 metre. The Hudson Bay Lowland areas will normally have excessive water 6 . Soil testing would not be useful in most of this region.
Soil texture also has a major influence on how well the soil drains and its ability to resist erosion. Texture refers to the sizes of individual soil particles. Clay and silt are the smallest particle sizes, and soils containing high amounts of these particles tend to be muddy when wet or cracked and dusty when dry. Clay and silt soils are more susceptible to compaction and are very likely to erode with trail use, especially on steep slopes. Likewise, soils composed mostly of sand, which has the largest particle sizes, are extremely unstable and should be avoided. Single-texture soils may be suitable for trail use if gravel-sized particles are embedded in the soil. To identify a soil's textural group, moisten a small amount of soil to the consistency of putty. Make a small ball of soil and squeeze it between your thumb and forefinger, pressing the thumb forward to form the sample into a ribbon. Table 1 describes each soil by textural class, and provides guidance on how to interpret the results of your soil texture test.
| Soil Texture | Identification |
|---|---|
Sand |
Loose and gritty. Will not form a ball. |
Loam | Smooth (flour-like), but slightly gritty. Forms a ball, but ribbon usually breaks easily. |
Silt |
Smooth like flour, not gritty. Forms ribbon that breaks under it's own weight. |
Clay |
Smooth and sticky when wet. Forms ribbon that is long and pliable. |
Organics |
High amount of decomposed material and water. Black to brown colour. Wetlands, low areas. Also referred to as peat or muck. |
To test soil drainage in the other regions, dig a hole 35 cm (14 inches) deep and 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inches) wide, and fill it with water. Once the water has completely drained, fill it a second time. If the water fails to drain from the hole within 18 hours (2.5 cm (1 inch) per hour), the soil either is poorly drained or has a high water table.
This soil drainage test should not be performed when the ground is frozen or after a heavy rainfall . For example, if you walk the trail route after a heavy rain to observe problems, you will need to return at a later time when the excess water has dissipated in order to perform the soil drainage test.
The Trails for All Ontarians Collaborative was created to provide guidance related to trails intended for human-powered use . This includes trails for activities such as walking, hiking, jogging, running, cross country skiing, snowshoeing, and bicycling. It also includes trails that combine human-powered and other types of use. Trail groups should keep in mind that individuals using personal mobility devices (e.g., wheelchairs) are included among walkers, hikers, joggers and runners, that bicyclists may be using hand cycles or recumbent bikes and that winter trail users may also be in a seated rather than standing position (e.g., sit skis). Trails that are intended solely for other types of use (e.g., equestrian, ATV, motorbike, snowmobile trails) are not within the scope of this document.
These guidelines and best practices are designed to apply to all trail settings, from highly developed urban paths, to suburban, rural and wilderness trails . It is critically important that we provide a full range of trail opportunities to all Ontarians. People living in urban centres should have opportunities to experience nature and the "wilder" side of our province. Conversely, those living in rural and remote areas should have the choice to pursue recreational activities, such as in-line skating or casual walks with their family, that are more commonly associated with trails in developed areas.
There should also never be a question such as "should I build an accessible trail or an inaccessible trail?" The Ontario Trails Strategy makes it clear that all types of trail opportunities should be available to all Ontarians . That doesn't mean that every piece of every trail must be open to use by everyone and all types of trail use. Rather, it means that the permitted users on every trail (as determined by the land managing entity) may be of any age, culture, or gender and may or may not have a disability.
These guidelines and the best practices for implementing them on Ontario trails were developed for a variety of reasons. Primarily, it was because volunteers plan, design, build and maintain the vast majority of Ontario trails . These volunteers willingly donate their time, experience and labour for the benefit of us all. Many of the larger trail organizations (e.g., Bruce Trail Association) provide extensive support, education and training to their volunteers. More typical, however, are the many volunteers who have great difficulty in obtaining specific information on how to build and maintain trails that are environmentally, economically and socially sustainable (see ) as well as safe and enjoyable for all potential users (see Universal Design ). The primary goal for this project was to support the greatest asset that the trail community in Ontario has, our willing volunteers , by providing a "one stop shop" for all of the best information related to trail design, construction and maintenance. In keeping with this goal, the design, construction and maintenance guidelines and techniques included in this document can be readily achieved, without the need for professional training or the use of heavy, mechanized equipment.
It is also intended that these guidelines and best practices can be used as a source of education for trail managers, professional or volunteer, regarding the current state of knowledge for making trails sustainable and available to people of all abilities. These guidelines and the best practices for achieving them will ensure a common foundation for all trails. However, it is critically important to recognize that a standardized approach does not mean that there will ever be a "standardized trail" . It is a common misconception that the development of trail standards will make all trails exactly the same. In reality, nothing could be further from the truth. While it is true that the widespread implementation of these guidelines and best practices will enable all trail users to know what to expect from trail-to-trail in terms of minimum standards, it is left to each individual trail designer to determine the ways in which each new trail will be unique . It is up to each trail organization to go beyond the minimum standards in the direction that will create a unique trail experience of the highest quality (i.e., sustainable and universal).
Keep in mind that the information in this resource are guidelines . While they are the best practices based on sustainability and universal design, they are not a required or legally mandated minimum standard for trails. Trail groups are encouraged to comply with as many of these recommendations as possible to ensure that their trail is optimally designed for sustainability and use by all Ontarians.
These guidelines and best practices for Ontario trails were developed through a collaborative partnership of local, regional, and provincial disability and trail organizations. The Trails for All Ontarians Collaborative was an alliance of existing organizations that was created to complete the development and evaluation of these guidelines and best practices.
The partners of the Trails for All Ontarians Collaborative were:
The success of this project was further enhanced by the contributions received from dozens of individuals, conservation authorities, municipalities, disability organizations and the following supporting organizations:
Financial support for this project was received from the Ontario Trillium Foundation as well as all of the partner organizations.
One of the major goals of this project was to consult widely with a broad range of trail groups and organizations representing potential trail users . Draft versions of the project documents were circulated for review to all partner and supporting organizations. They, in turn, were encouraged to widely circulate the documents to obtain feedback from a broad spectrum of stakeholders. Many individuals, not connected to an organization, also chose to provide comments and feedback. We believe that their contributions have greatly enhanced the quality of this document. We also greatly appreciate the time and effort of the many organizations that were not partners in this project but nevertheless took the time to provide us with valuable feedback and recommendations ( Appendix D ). These organizations represent private, local, regional and provincial trail providers, both professional and volunteer, as well as a variety of groups representing potential trail users.
These recommendations are designed to optimize the social, environmental and economic sustainability of recreation trails in Ontario and to encourage a broad spectrum of trail opportunities for all Ontarians. In almost all cases, following these guidelines will ensure that trail construction and/or use do not compromise the natural environments that are so highly valued. In urban and suburban environments, the highly constructed nature of the trail environment means that it would be extremely unusual that a trail could not fully comply with these recommendations. Experience to date has also shown that most trails in rural or remote environments can also comply, except in very specialized situations.
When considering the possibility of building a trail that does not comply, it is important to ask questions such as the following:
Despite all of the issues raised by the above questions, and the detrimental effects on trail sustainability that result, it is recognized that in relatively unusual circumstances there will be short sections of a trail that cannot meet all of these recommendations. In these situations, the trail segment that is limited should be constructed as close to the recommendations as possible. All sections of the trail that are not under the same constraints (i.e., before and after the difficult section) should be constructed to fully comply with the best practices . The existence of, location and conditions found on the difficult section of trail should be clearly posted at all trail access points and made available in all trail information materials (e.g., web site, guidebook).
The answer to this question is an emphatic " NO ". It is absolutely impossible to make a trail that is accessible to everyone . There will always be some people who do not want to or cannot use a trail no matter how the trail is designed, constructed and maintained. For example, some people are allergic to sunlight and therefore could only use a trail that was safe to use in the middle of the night. Other people have fears of being outside, and would never choose to use an outdoor trail. There are also many trails that are intimidating to a wide range of potential users (e.g., women, older adults) because there is a strong perception of the trail being unsafe or that trail users may be unacceptably vulnerable to harm.
It must also be recognized that the needs of different trail users often conflict . By creating a trail that is designed to meet the needs of one group of trail users, the possibility for enjoyment of the trail by other potential users is decreased. For example, as stated earlier, it is a commonly held myth that trails must be paved in order to be accessible to people who use mobility devices, such as wheelchairs or scooters. Even if a trail is paved because of such "good intentions", a paved surface automatically makes the trail less appropriate for people who prefer an unpaved surface (e.g., runners, equestrians, or people who walk with an artificial leg). Each characteristic of a trail will encourage some users and discourage others. The key to achieving "best practices" is to ensure that the full spectrum of trail opportunities is available to all members of the community within their local area .
It almost goes without saying that safety on trails should always be of paramount concern. Almost, because safety should be explicitly considered as well as implicitly encouraged . Long before issues of insurance costs and liability were raised, the safety of people on trails (both trail users and trail workers) was the most important concern in relation to the design, construction and maintenance of trails. It is not possible to provide a comprehensive guide to trail safety within the current document. Readers are encouraged to use the information provided as a starting point, and to follow up on suggested references and use other information sources to ensure that they have the most up-to-date and appropriate safety knowledge for their trail.
Following recommended practices for trail design, construction and maintenance will enhance trail safety . The safety of trail workers will be enhanced because the techniques and equipment used to build and maintain the trail will be appropriate to the environment and the skills of the workers. Keeping tools sharp and in good repair, and using the correct tool for each job are key components of trail worker safety. Trail user safety will also be enhanced because the wide range of abilities among trail users will have been carefully considered within each phase of trail design, construction and maintenance.
In order to optimize trail safety and reduce the possibility of litigation, organizations should have a risk management plan for their trail . [9], [10] Risk management affects the officers of trail organizations, volunteer trail workers, event leaders, trail users and landowners across whose land the trail may pass. There are several components of a risk management plan. Initially, every effort should be made to reduce the possibility of injury by identifying risk areas and limiting their effect. Signs, barriers, supervision, education programmes or regular trail inspections are just a few of the activities that will help to limit the effect of identified risk areas. Although prevention should always be the primary method of reducing risk , it is also important to minimize the effect of accidents that do occur through the availability and use of first aid posts and rescue equipment.
Trail users are most often put at risk when the demands of the trail environment exceed the skills they possess . Excessive demands from the trail environment can occur because of natural events (e.g., sudden changes in weather, catastrophic events such as landslides). However, they occur much more commonly because of changes in the trail environment that can be controlled and/or prevented.
For example, a wide, paved trail that leads from a trailhead that is highly developed (i.e., has lots of amenities) establishes an expectation among trail users that the trail environment will also be highly developed and relatively easy to negotiate. If that same trail leads to a step-stone or log crossing of a fast moving river, users will be faced with an inappropriate choice: turn back without reaching the destination or attempt a crossing that is much more difficult than the trail itself. Trail builders can enhance the safety of trail users by ensuring that the skills required for use of the trail are explicitly stated in trail information and implicitly conveyed through the trail conditions and environment at all trail access points .
Trail users can also be put at risk when trail designers and builders do not consider the needs of all potential users. Most often, trails are designed for the "twenty-something fitness fanatic", the "trail expert" or the "experienced back-country traveller". However, in reality, most trail users will not be highly fit, skilled and experienced . In order to enhance the safety of trail users, trails should be designed and built in a way that considers that many trail users may be of average or lower fitness, inexperienced, or limited in the skills they can use to see, hear, understand and negotiate the trail environment. Typically, trails are designed and built by people who have a lot of trail experience. Never assume that trail users will have the same level of skills, expertise or experience .
Like trail users, the safety of trail workers can also be jeopardized by unusual weather or sudden changes in the trail environment. However, as is the case for trail users, the primary hazards for trail workers are related to a mismatch between the skills and experience required for the task and the skills and experience of the trail worker . Even though these trail construction and maintenance techniques focus primarily on methods appropriate for trail volunteers (rather than professionals), it should never be assumed that a trail worker has the knowledge, skill or expertise to perform the desired task . The safety of trail workers is equally important, whether the trail is being constructed by professionals using heavy equipment or by volunteers helping out on a weekend.
A detailed review of trail safety for both workers and trail users is far beyond the scope of this resource. Further information about trail safety issues can be obtained from many sources. [11] A limited amount of additional safety information is also provided in Appendix E .
Money. It's always an important consideration in relation to trail design, construction and maintenance. Money , and usually lots of it, is required before you build a trail (e.g., permit or environmental assessment costs), while you build the trail (e.g., construction materials) and after you build the trail (e.g., maintenance tools, materials for the replacement of facilities). Money is also almost always in very short supply! However, the "cost" of recreation trails does not refer only to monetary costs . Trails also have substantial costs in relation to the time and effort required to design, build and maintain trail experiences.
Following the best practices for sustainability and universal design does not "cost more" [12]. In new trail design, construction or re-construction it will require similar resources (monetary and non-monetary) and can significantly increase the resources available to support a trail. For example, environmental sustainability will minimize the on-going costs of trail maintenance and the use of environmental protection measures can often attract new sources of support for the trails (e.g., grants, money from "enviro-friendly" companies). Enhancing the social sustainability of the trail is a great way to increase the pool of potential trail workers, and the "capital" of community involvement, commitment and use can easily be translated into trail support from the government, public and not-for-profit sectors. Ensuring broad community support and minimizing on-going maintenance costs through environmental sensitivity are the best ways to ensure the long-term economic sustainability of the trail. Appendix F: Dollars and Cents provides additional information on potential sources of trail support and funding.
These recommendations apply equally to all trails in Ontario , regardless of where they are located. Backcountry or wilderness trails are distinguished by their location and the "wilderness experience" that they provide. Nothing in these recommendations limits the location where trails can be built or the type of experience that they can provide . The key to constructing a backcountry or wilderness trail is to ensure that the trail provides the "wilderness experience" that the user expects. Although we, in Ontario, are blessed with an enormous amount of wilderness (in comparison to most similarly-developed countries), our wilderness is nevertheless a very precious and quickly vanishing resource. Most trail users perceive a trail to be a wilderness experience when the surface of the trail tread appears natural, the trail seems relatively narrow and close to surrounding vegetation, the trail follows the natural contours of the land, and encounters with other groups of users are relatively infrequent . Assuming that the trail is in a location where the number of users will be relatively small, trail managers can create a more "wilderness feel" on the trail by:
All trail groups know that building and maintaining a trail involves much more than the skills used to actually design, construct and maintain the trail. These guidelines, and the best practices to achieve them, are intended to apply to Ontario trails that are intended for human-powered use. That includes trails in urban, suburban, rural, and wilderness areas as well as trails that share both human-powered and other uses.
It must also be recognized that the majority of Ontario trails were developed long before our current knowledge of sustainable trail design practices was available . Many existing trails were created in order to get from Point A to Point B as quickly as possible. They developed as people and vehicles followed walking routes to the next town or to the views available at a high point, game trails, natural openings in the forest, logging roads, railroad corridors, unopened road allowances, etc. Nothing in these guidelines suggests that we should abandon this vast network of existing trails . These guidelines also do not require that existing trails be re-designed or re-constructed using these best practices. However, trail groups that manage existing trails that do not follow sustainable and universal design principles are strongly encouraged to look for opportunities to bring existing trails closer to these recommendations when maintenance activities are performed or trail re-construction is required for other reasons (e.g., flooding due to beaver activity).
Many of the aspects of developing and operating Ontario trails have not been included in this resource. In order to keep the scope of this project manageable, important topics that were determined to be outside of the scope of this resource include:
Ontario Ministry of Health Promotion. (2005) Active 2010: Ontario Trails Strategy . Toronto: Author.
Public Health Agency of Canada, Physical Activity Unit. Physical Activity for Health: The Evidence . [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/pau-uap/fitness/evidence.html.
Trans Canada Trail Foundation. Trans Canada Trail Launches Economic Impact Study - Findings to Exceed $2 Billion . [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.tctrail.ca/index.php?section_id=7&lang=en&text_id=5946
4.5 million households that include 12.5 million people is an average of just under 3 people per household, and 1 in 7 people have a disability (data from Ontario government and Statistics Canada web sites - retrieved 31 July 2006).
Government of Ontario. Active 2010. [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.active2010.ca.
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Overview of Ontario’s Forests - Ontario’s Landscape. [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://ontariosforests.mnr.gov.on.ca/forestoverview.cfm.
The International Mountain Bicycling Association (IMBA) suggests that adding cat litter (which has a high clay content) can be an effective and inexpensive method for increasing the clay content of sandy soils. Refer to IMBA:Subaru/IMBA Trail Crews: 1999: Hello from the Sunshine State, March, 1998. [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.imba.com/tcc/1999/florida.html for additional information.
Parker, T.S. (2004) Natural Surface Trails by Design: Physical and Human Design Essentials of Sustainable, Enjoyable Trails. Boulder, CO: Natureshape.
Hike Ontario. Hike Ontario Risk Management Manual. [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.hikeontario.com/services/downloads/riskmgmt.pdf.
Go for Green. Trail Monitor 3: Risk Management and Liability for Trails. [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.trailscanada.com/documents/Monitor_3_Final.pdf.
For example, Oak Ridges Trail Association. Oak Ridges Trail Association Safety Policy for Trail Workers. [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.oakridgestrail.org/Documents/Safety%20Policy.pdf.
Wilderness Inquiry, Inc. (Sept. 24, 1999). Access Board Cost Analysis of Outdoor Developed Areas, U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board. [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://wi.wildernessinquiry.org/downloads/research/CAS%20Final%20Report.pdf.