Clear Corridor

The clear trail corridor includes not only the trail tread, but also the space above the trail tread where trail users are expected to travel and an additional buffer zone that separates trail users from surrounding vegetation. Ensuring that vegetation does not intrude on or above the trail tread is essential to the safety and enjoyment of trail users . Keeping the vegetation away from trail users is also important for the health of the vegetation. Vegetation that hangs in the way or brushes the trail user is at risk of being arbitrary stripped or broken by annoyed trail users. This breaking of branches or stripping of foliage is rarely done in a way that is beneficial to the health of the vegetation. Trails that are designed with an adequate buffer zone are rewarded with a healthier plant environment .

45. Design the trail corridor based on terrain and desired experience .
    The optimal dimensions for the height and width of the tread and buffer zones will vary, depending on the environment in which the trail is located and the desired trail experience. Design the clear trail corridor so that users do not inadvertently contact the surrounding environment. Each type of terrain and experience (e.g., hiking, biking, equestrian, motorized) will have different width requirements.
46. Ensure the tread is wide enough for all permitted users .
    Unless a trail is rarely used or enforcement of one-way traffic is feasible, trails should be designed wide enough for two users to pass, without forcing people off of the prepared tread. For a hiking trail, that means the constructed tread should be at least 1.0 m wide and the clear area above the tread should be at least 2 m high . If narrower trails are built, wider passing spots should be provided at frequent intervals (50 m or less). A clear trail corridor of this size will be adequate for most trails that are maintained prior to each growing season. Additional width should be provided as the speed of travel increases and on grades exceeding 5% so that trail users will have adequate sight lines for their safety as well as the safety of others. On trails that permit cross-country skiing, a minimum tread width of 3 m (10 feet) should be provided so that skiers will be able to angle (herringbone, snowplow or side step) their skis as necessary for the terrain. Many trail volunteers think that clearing a wider tread is more damaging to the environment. That is definitely not true. People will walk side-by-side at every opportunity and vegetation will be damaged when they arbitrarily move or break branches to get through narrower corridors. Ensure that the vegetation in the trail environment stays as healthy as possible by appropriately trimming branches at the collar and removing vegetation within a corridor at least 1.0 m in width.
47. Vary the corridor width .
    Variation in the size of the trail corridor provides more interest and can reduce trail construction costs. In rough terrain the corridor may be narrower, while in areas with fewer constraints, such as meadows or woods, a wider trail corridor may be appropriate.

48. Design a vegetation-free buffer zone on each side and above the tread area .
    The buffer zone provides a safety area for users who inadvertently go off the tread. Planned vegetation removal in this area also reduces maintenance, allows for longer sight lines, and keeps the trail passable through severe weather events. For hiking trails, a minimum buffer zone of 30 cm (12 inches) on each side and 50 cm (20 inches) above the trail tread corridor is recommended. However, on many trails, the buffer zone should be larger than these minimum guidelines. For example, the buffer zone should be larger (e.g., one metre (3.3 feet) on all sides) if the trail will not be regularly maintained, if the surrounding trail environment contains noxious plants (e.g., poison ivy), in areas where vegetation can be weighted down with snow, on trails that permit larger trail users (e.g., equestrians, ATVs) or if emergency or maintenance vehicle access is required. Clearing a wider trail corridor can also be an effective method of environmental management because different species of vegetation will thrive under more open or shaded conditions. A higher buffer zone can also reduce the "tunnel" effect that is often created when a trail is cut through dense bush. Although the tunnel effect can be attractive, design the trail so that the "tunnel" is broken at frequent intervals so that users do not feel trapped or unsafe. The social sustainability of a trail can be negatively affected if users do not feel safe or feel that they are blocked from being aware of their surroundings.
49. Ensure that all decisions regarding vegetation removal are informed .
    Have a person who knows the local natural vegetation make the decisions about vegetation removal to create the trail tread. Rely on experts familiar with the area to identify any rare, dangerous or otherwise special vegetation. Be sure to confirm decisions about planned vegetation removal with the landowner. It is usually best to leave as much of the natural vegetation as possible . A well-designed trail minimizes the need for vegetation removal by taking advantage of naturally occurring clearings and not requiring the removal of larger trees. If a large tree is blocking the trail, re-align around the tree and outside of the tree rootlets. Saving the tree not only requires less work, it also maintains an environmental and aesthetic asset. That said, there may be circumstances where an old or diseased tree must be removed for safety reasons. In this situation, consult with local experts and authorities regarding the possibility of tree removal.
50. Do not allow objects to protrude into the trail tread.
    A protruding object is any item that can be found within the area defined by the tread corridor (i.e., tread width and tread height). All protruding objects should be considered a hazard to trail users . Protruding objects on trails are most commonly caused by overgrown vegetation or a tree that has fallen across the trail. Protruding objects may also result unintentionally when signs or trail facilities (e.g., benches, trash receptacles) are mistakenly mounted in the trail tread. In very rare cases, it may be essential to allow objects to protrude into the clear trail corridor. Trails in caves or at the edge of overhanging rocks are two examples. If a trail is appropriate in these often sensitive environments, trail users should be warned of the presence of the protruding object by a safety barrier . The safety barrier should create a solid connection between the ground and the point on the object that the trail user would initially bump into.

User Amenities and Facilities

Trail user amenities and facilities include all of the human-made structures found along the trail route that are designed to enhance the safety and/or enjoyment of trail users . Some amenities, such as access to water suitable for drinking and emergency shelters, are critical to user safety. Amenities such as benches or picnic tables are primarily for user comfort, while facilities such as handrails can enhance both safety and satisfaction. The purpose of other types of amenities, such as toilets or trash receptacles, can be for both user enjoyment and environmental protection .

There is no overall requirement for the provision of trail amenities and facilities for "best practice" trails. The decision regarding what, if any, amenities and facilities will be provided along a trail should be a balance of all of these issues (user safety, user comfort and enjoyment, environmental protection) in relation to the intended trail experience and permitted trail uses . The guidelines for creating user amenities and facilities that are sustainable and universally designed are:

51. Enhance social sustainability and universal design .
    To enhance the social sustainability of the trail, amenities and facilities should be accessible to and useable by the broadest possible spectrum of potential trail users. When trail amenities and facilities are provided, the structure itself should conform to accessibility requirements .
    Minimum accessibility requirements that apply to the entire province of Ontario are under development through the Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act (2005). However, many municipalities and the Canadian Standards Association [47] already have accessibility requirements that govern the design of public amenities and facilities. Where municipal requirements are not available, the CSA standards should be used until the provincial standards have been developed. If municipal requirements exceed other standards, facilities on trails within that municipality are required to comply with the municipal regulations. Amenities and facilities provided at trail access points should also comply with regulations regarding the surrounding surface and access routes . Amenities and facilities located along the trail but not at an access point should meet the clear space requirement around the structure and be located on a route that is of the same standard as the trail itself.
52. Enhance environmental sustainability .
    In order to maximize the environmental sustainability of a trail, amenities and facilities that provide trail users with access to drinking water, toilets, and garbage disposal should be provided. The facilities can be located along the trail, at access points, or in the vicinity of the trailhead (e.g., at the nearby general store or gas station), depending on factors such as amount of trail use, intended trail experience and resources of the trail managing organization. If the trail organization does not have the resources to manage waste disposal, clear information regarding the expected procedures (e.g., pack in/pack out, taking waste (including excrement) home, location of nearby facilities) should be provided for trail users. On longer trails where the distance between access points is large, drinking water, toilets and garbage disposal facilities should be provided at intervals approximately 2 hours apart for the average to slower than average trail user. If it is not feasible to provide these facilities at regular intervals (e.g., it would be difficult to pack-out garbage from the middle of a long distance trail), signs indicating the lack of on-trail facilities should be clearly posted at all trail access points.
53. Carefully consider the need for access to health and safety facilities.
    Health and safety facilities include access to drinking water, toilets and emergency shelters and assistance. If it is considered reasonable to expect that trail users would have a need for these essential facilities and they are not provided, trail managers should recognize that users will "make their own path" in order to meet these needs . In terms of trail management, users should not be encouraged to go off of the designated trail because of a lack of trail amenities. Encouraging these types of unauthorized uses usually has a negative impact on the trail environment and can also jeopardize user safety. For example, if there are no facilities on or near the trail where users can obtain drinking water, they will be encouraged to go off of the designated trail to the edge of a nearby creek or stream. As each user makes their own trail to the edge of the creek, riparian habitat is damaged and trail users are exposed to additional hazards (e.g., slipping on an unstable bank and falling into the creek).
54. Consider all permitted trail users .
    People usually travel on trails in a group of two or more people. Ensure that facilities and the path connecting the facility to the trail are suitable for use by more than one person and for people of different ages and abilities. For example, if a rest area is provided, ensure that there is seating for children and adults as well as space for someone using a wheelchair or power scooter to sit along side and among the group. Although it may or may not be appropriate to provide user amenities along a trail, it is never appropriate to provide facilities or amenities that can be used by some people and not others (e.g., provide an outhouse or toilet that is not of an accessible design).
55. Provide a level, firm and stable surface to access the facility.
    The space in front of all operating side(s) of the facility should have a slope < 5% and be at least 1.0 m (3.3 feet) in diameter, and the size should be increased to a minimum of 1.5 m (5 feet) in diameter if users may want or have to change direction. For example, a 1.5 m (5 feet) diameter surface should be provided in front of a toilet or trash receptacle because the user will want to turn around when they are finished using the facility. The larger diameter of 1.5 m (5 feet) should also be used around all facilities that pose a potential hazard to the user (e.g., barbecue grill or fire pit).
56. Connect the facility to the trail with a suitable path .
    The path leading from the trail to the facility should be of the same standard as the trail itself. That is, it should have similar width, tread and slopes as the trail used to get to that location.
57. Provide rest areas at regular intervals.
    Rest areas are important because they provide trail users of all ages the opportunity to relax and enjoy the trail environment. Rest areas need not be elaborate or human-made . A large fallen tree, positioned so that a stable and relatively level sitting surface is provided approximately 45 cm (18 inches) above the ground, makes a suitable resting area on trails in natural or remote environments. At a minimum, resting areas should be provided at 30-minute intervals for the slower-than-average trail user. On trails that anticipate a high volume of use by young children, older adults, or inexperienced or unfit trail users, resting areas should be provided at more frequent intervals (e.g., 15 minutes apart).
58. Inform trail users of access to electricity .
    The availability of electricity (via a regular plug outlet) at trail access points greatly enhances the ability of people who use power wheelchairs and scooters to access the trail. Many powered mobility devices are designed for extended use over several hours, however the more difficult travel conditions on a trail can drain the power supply more quickly (e.g., energy is wasted when the wheels slip on the surface) than during typical "city use". Clearly inform trail users of the location(s) where access to electricity is available or if such access is not provided through information sources (e.g., brochure, web site) that trail users can access before going to the trail.

Access Points

Access points include all of the locations where users can enter or exit from the trail . Typically, we think of access points as being at the trailhead. However, access points can also be at intersections, with roads or other trails, where trail users change from one path to the next.

59. Make trailheads attractive and inviting .
    Trailheads are often thought of as one of the most important aspects of a trail. They are usually the first thing that potential trail users encounter, and as such they create that "all important" first impression of the trail and trail experience. Trailheads should be highly visible to potential users . Increasing the attractiveness of trail use through appropriate trailhead design will have a positive impact on the social and economic sustainability of the trail. The size and scope of trailhead areas should match the intended trail experience and expected level of use. For safety and sustainability, the practice of making trailheads inconspicuous to reduce or control use should be avoided . The frustration experienced by trail users who have to search for the trailhead and the ad hoc access routes they may create will have significant negative impacts on the social and environmental sustainability of the trail. The safety of trail users and vehicular traffic can also be compromised if drivers are searching for the trailhead or trail users "appear from nowhere". If the trail environment is so sensitive that it would not tolerate the use it would receive with a clearly defined trailhead, then the location of the trail should be seriously re-considered.
60. Ensure everyone will understand they are entering a trail .
    While this may seem self-evident, if you think about the wide range of people who may come to an access point it becomes apparent that achieving this goal can be quite complex. Consider whether the trail would be clearly understood by people moving at higher speeds (e.g., bicyclists, motor vehicle drivers), those who cannot see or read (e.g., people from other cultures or with learning disabilities), people who might not understand subtle signals (e.g., children, people with cognitive disabilities), those who view the trail from a low vantage point (e.g., children, people using wheelchairs) or trail users who are not permitted.
61. Design trailheads to function as transfer points .
    The trailhead should allow users to transfer between the trail and surrounding area in a way that is as natural, comfortable and "seamless" as possible. Design the access point so that it physically and visually ties the trail to the surrounding area, highlights entry into the trail environment, can be safely and effectively used by people of all abilities, and provides the information that trail users will require.
62. Ensure that safe and effective parking can be provided .
    Parked cars will be found at all trail access points, whether or not parking facilities have been provided. Therefore, the choice of access point location should be based partly on its ability to provide for a safe and effective parking site. The number of parking spaces and the design of the parking area should represent the most appropriate balance between the intended trail experience and the expected level of trail use. All parking facilities must also conform to standards for accessibility. Using a curved layout for parking spaces can help to "soften" the visual impact of the parking area within the natural environment. Curved flow routes through the parking area, in conjunction with diagonal parking spaces, is a good design that is simple to understand and easy to use. . If there is no intention to provide parking space as part of the trailhead, trail managers should carefully consider the safety implications of that decision for those travelling on the trail and surrounding roads.
63. Carefully design intersections for the safety of all trail users.
    
    Ensuring the safety of trail users, whether they are dispersing onto the road or crossing to the other side, should be the paramount consideration in the design of every trail to road intersection. In most cases, intersections (with either another trail or a road) should be designed so that the intersection occurs at a 90-degree angle . This perpendicular alignment offers the best opportunity for trail users to see, understand and negotiate the intersection. The size, layout and complexity of an intersection will be unique to each setting. The number and types of users, both on the trail and the intersecting travel path, must be considered. Design intersections so that all users (including those who have a low vantage point, rely solely on sight for information or travel at higher speeds) have adequate sight lines and there is enough tread width that users can safely congregate while waiting to proceed. The intersection should also be designed so that it matches the surrounding environment or trail "experience" to the greatest degree possible (within the bounds of safety requirements). Keep in mind that at every intersection, trail users may change direction. They may also encounter other users, such as other trail users or vehicular traffic.
64. Plan for traffic flow through the intersection .
    It is important to consider how users from each trail or road will interact with each other. Conflicts often result when the users on one trail "fly through" an intersection making it difficult or unsafe for users from the other trail to cross, merge or proceed . Offsetting trail intersections, to create two 3-way intersections instead of one 4-way intersection, is a helpful design for minimizing user conflicts at intersections. It is also important to ensure that the transitions between the trail surfaces and the intersection are smooth and free of obstacles .
65. Ensure transition areas are available to people of all abilities.
    Ensure that trail-to-road transition areas are smooth and barrier free, for the safety of trail users on wheels (e.g., bicyclists, people using wheelchairs). Conditions at the access point should be similar to the conditions found throughout the trail so that the initial impression of the trail environment is accurate.

Designing Trail Signs and Information Sources

There are a wide variety of formats that can be used to convey information about a trail to potential users. Some formats (e.g., web site) are intended to provide information before the user arrives at the trail. Others (e.g., on-trail signs) provide information to users while they are on the trail. The guidelines for sustainable and universally designed trail signs and information are:

66. Design user information so it is available to all .
    Signs should clearly convey the desired information to all potential users, with and without disabilities . Use standard symbols that are easy for people to understand, a matte finish and texture [48] (e.g., symbols carved into the sign or raised above the background of the sign by 0.8 mm to 1.5 mm (0.3 to 0.5 inches) to assist trail users of all abilities to understand the information provided. If text is required, it should be Grade 6 reading level or less (preferably Grade 4 or less). Short and simple messages are easier to understand. Follow published guidelines [49] for accessible signage and use colours and graphics consistently. Text should be a san serif font (e.g., Helvetica, Univers) and be written with upper- and lower-case letters. Avoid using all capital letters as it makes the text much harder to read. The size of text characters will depend on the viewing distance (how far trail users will be from the information source). Information sources that can be very close to the user's face (e.g., brochure, map, web site) can use text as small as 20 mm (0.8 inches) in height. Signs on the trail should have a minimum character height of 75 mm to 100 mm (3 to 4 inches) for viewing distances of 2.3 m to 2.5 metres (7.5 to 8.2 feet). Additional information about text requirements can be found in "Clearing Our Path" [49] . The contrast between the background colour and the colour used for the text or graphics should be at least 70% [50]. White/yellow lettering on a dark (black preferred) background is generally easier for people with visual impairments to read than dark letters on a white background. It is also helpful to have the sign background colour contrasted against the background surface. For example, a sign mounted on a light wall should have a black background and white lettering. Conversely, a sign mounted in dense green vegetation should have a white background and dark lettering.
67. Match the information source to the trail environment.
    The material, colour and style of all signs and
    information sources should be compatible with the trail
    environment and intended experience. The number and
    size of on-trail signs should be a balance between
    maintaining the trail experience and providing users
    with the information that they need to know.
68. Choose sign locations carefully.
    
    Choose the location of your signs and supports carefully. The sign panel can be created from a wide variety of materials, such as metal, fibreglass, wood, concrete, and plastic. Choose sign materials that are appropriate to the trail environment and have the required durability and aesthetics. Choose materials that are insect, salt and water resistant. Proper placement allows the message to be easily understood, without misinterpretation. Remember that the message is conveyed not only by what is on the sign but also through its placement , and its location relative to other signs and markings. Use common sense and judgement to determine sign locations and use as few signs as possible to convey the required information. Avoid "sign pollution" .
69. Design sign panels to suit the trail environment . Avoid using inexpensive materials in large rectangles, such as a 4 feet by 8 feet sheet of plywood, as it will give the trail a "billboard appearance" [51]. Sign panels that use a 5 to 3 or 5 to 4 ratio for their dimensions are more visually appealing than square panels.
70. Design sign supports for the trail environment .
    Supports do more than hold up a sign. The physical quality of supports should have a harmonious relationship with the natural environment and desired trail experience. Choose colours and materials that complement the site, such as a rock support for signs on a trail across exposed Shield. A roof over a trailhead or orientation sign provides trail users with an invitation to stop before they start along the trail. Supports for a sign can be made from lumber, logs or metal. Cedar posts are recommended if available. If pressure treated lumber is to be used, be certain that the preservative does not contain arsenic. To make a natural post, use a rot-resistant tree such as cedar, locust or hemlock. Living trees should not be used as sign supports .
71. Design for the conditions where the sign/information source will be installed .
    It is important to design information sources for the conditions that will occur once they are installed on the trail. While this may seem self-evident, this aspect of sign design is often overlooked. Ensure that sign visibility will be maintained under high sun, glare, or snowy conditions or if trail users have a low vantage point (e.g., children, recumbent cyclists, people using wheelchairs, people of short stature).
72. Be consistent with and clearly identify sign/information source locations.
    Signs should be located on one side of the tread. The signpost should be set back from the tread so that no part of the sign protrudes into the space above the tread. The sign should also be located so that trail users can easily get closer to the sign if necessary, in order to see or understand the information on the sign. Wherever possible, a short section (0.6 metres (2 feet)) in the direction of travel across the full width of the tread) of alternate surface should be installed in the trail tread to identify the location of information sources for people with vision impairments. Identifying the location of information sources is particularly important for interpretive trails and when conveying information about trail hazards.
73. Use universal symbols if possible .
    Use universal symbols to provide users with the direction to travel or information about where features (e.g., parking lot, washrooms, lookout) are located. They can also convey regulatory information, such as "do not enter", or educate trail users about hazards (e.g., rock fall zone, steep slopes) found along a trail. Use interdictory (red ring with a diagonal red stroke) and permissive (round green ring) symbols to indicate what is/is not prohibited on a trail . Virtually any universal symbol is available as ready-to-use clip-art . Standard trail images can be purchased on CD-ROM or from on-line services [52]. Icons representing grade, cross slope, width and surface can also be obtained free of charge [53].
74. Abide by local or provincial sign regulations .
    Many trails, and particularly those within highway or railroad rights-of-way, will be subject to additional local or provincial standards for sign style, placement or content. Check with knowledgeable local sources to ensure that these requirements are clearly understood.
75. Design an accurate and complete system of regulatory/warning signs.
    
    Regulatory signs display rules and regulations regarding trail use and primarily advise the trail user of trail restrictions. Regulatory signs should clearly identify the permitted trail users . Signs can also tell users where they should not or cannot travel. Warning signs should be used to indicate upcoming hazards (actual and potential) along a trail. Examples are steep slopes, railway crossings, rough tread or uneven pavement changes. It is helpful if they also provide users with clear directions or suitable precautions for dealing with adverse conditions. Graphic symbols used for regulatory signs for trail users are derived, for the most part, from the MTO Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Regulatory signs for railway crossings originate with Transport Canada. Graphics for regulatory signs relating to other trail use issues such as littering, parking, dogs, etc. are site specific and are derived from a variety of sources, such as Ontario Provincial Park sign plans or the Parks Canada signage manual. Regulatory signs should be 45 cm x 45 cm (18 x 18 inches) [54]. Use a yellow background to indicate a hazard or warning. Hazards should be indicated at least 30 metres (98 feet) in advance and at the point of hazard. Use black text and graphics on a white background for all other signs, except for stop signs which use white on red.
    
    Text size should be at least 5.5 cm (192pt) font for the major message. Both the text and graphic should be centred. Stop signs should be posted at all intersections where off-road sections of a trail cross roadways with motor vehicle traffic. This includes all public roadways, as well as park roads, semi-public roads and parking lots. Yield signs should generally be avoided because of the ambiguity of assessing right-of way.

76. Design a network of directional signs.
    Directional signs give directions to users on the trail , enabling them to easily find important locations such as trailheads, access points, facilities and important trail features. Trail distances should , at a minimum, be indicated on major and secondary trailhead signs . Directional signs can also include maps (i.e., "You are here"), trail length and the distance(s) to features, alternate access points or intersections. Use blazes or directional signs to clearly mark the route of the trail. Blazes should be at least 5 cm wide and 15 cm high (2 x 6 inches). The tree or fence post should be larger than the blaze, so that a contrasting border of at least 2 cm (0.8 inches) is visible on all sides . Blazes should be mounted about 1.5 metres (5 feet) above the trail tread and should be visible to people sitting as well as standing. Higher mounting locations should be used on winter trails, the height being determined by the typical snow depth. Mount small directional signs 3 metres to 5 metres (10 to 16 feet) in advance of a change in direction or where there may be difficulty in following the route [55]. These signs should be approximately 30 cm by 30 cm (12 by 12 inch). Arrows of 30 cm x 15 cm (12 x 6 inches) are also useful, particularly in places with multiple trails. Place route markers with the name of the route and distance to the trailhead every 500 to 700 metres (1600 to 2300 feet).
77. Consider the need for additional user information .
    Information sources should clearly identify the type of trail (e.g., hiking, interpretive) for all users. Signs indicating the location of rest stops, washroom facilities, and the availability of drinking water, for example, can also be very helpful. Additional information can remind users of trail etiquette (e.g., stay on the trail, downhill users have the right of way) and educate users about potentially hazardous or uncomfortable situations (e.g., poison ivy, bears nearby, or expert only trail). Provide additional information alone or with the appropriate directional sign at logical, high-visibility locations.
78. Do not use the International Symbol of Accessibility (ISA).
    
    The International Symbol of Accessibility (ISA) should not be used to describe the conditions on a trail unless the trail fully complies with all of the internationally accepted ISA standards. One of those standards is a slip-resistant surface. Clearly, there are very few, if any, trails in Ontario that can provide a slip-resistant surface at all times of the year. The ISA can be used on facilities provided along the trail (e.g., washrooms), if the facility complies with the standards dictated by the symbol.
79. Provide information about the on-trail conditions.
    
    Ensure that trail users of all abilities have access to accurate information about the on-trail conditions that they will encounter. At a minimum, the information should include objective measurements of trail length, tread, clear corridor, and slope . Providing this information will enhance trail safety and social sustainability by enabling potential trail users to make informed decisions about whether the trail will suit their interests and abilities. Signs indicating the accessibility of built facilities (e.g., washrooms) should be provided on the facility and through other information sources (e.g., trail maps and brochures).
80. Do not use trail ratings to convey trail conditions .
    Trail difficulty ratings are commonly provided on trails. The green circle, blue square, black diamond rating system developed by the ski industry is particularly well known. However, trail difficulty rating systems are not recommended because they can significantly impact user safety . Trail ratings are rarely accurate for any particular user, and can be dangerously inaccurate for people who are inexperienced, unfit or have different abilities. The key problem with difficulty ratings is that the ratings are always subjective . They represent the opinion of the person who applied the rating. As a trail manager or worker, that person is likely more fit and experienced than the average user. All experienced trail users can recall times when they have finished a "difficult" hike without breaking stride or when an "easy" hike was much more challenging than anticipated. Trail difficulty ratings are also misleading because the same labels can represent very different trails at different sites . Skiers know very well the dangers of assuming that you can ski the "black diamond" trail in Banff just because you can ski every "black diamond" trail in southern Ontario. Trail users assume difficulty ratings represent a standard set of trail conditions. This is not the case and users often get into difficulty on a trail because their expectations of the on-trail conditions have been mislead by the difficulty rating.

Designing for Year-Round Use

Best practices for trail design also involves considering the different trail uses that occur at different times of the year . For example, cross-country skiers generally require a much wider trail tread on slopes, so that they can angle their skis as they climb (i.e., herringbone) or descend (i.e., snowplow). For all trails that could be used year-round (even if the winter use is incidental or unintended), keep in mind the following guidelines:

81. Anticipate that the trail tread may be much higher than the ground surface .
    In areas that receive substantial amounts of snow, those travelling on the trail in the winter may be 1 metre (3.3 feet) or more above the ground. Even in areas where there is relatively little snow accumulation, trail users are likely to be at least 10 centimetres (4 inches) above the natural trail surface.
82. Design vegetation that will not interfere with trail use in the winter .
    The weight of snow and ice on tree branches and bushes can often make the vegetation surrounding the trail much lower to the ground. Standards for clearing the trail corridor should be adjusted according to the degree of change in the foliage during the winter months.
83. Design for trail users who may not be able to stand or walk on their feet.
    It is a common mistake of inexperienced users of cross-country skis or snowshoes to remove their equipment when they stop for a rest or to make adjustments. The result is a rapid reminder of how essential the skis or snowshoes are to enable us to "float" on top of the snow. Trails and associated facilities need to be designed so that trail users will be easily able to negotiate the trail and use the facilities even if they are unable to remove their equipment.
84. Special considerations are required during times of freeze-up and thaw .
    At these times, trail surfaces are often the most difficult to negotiate. There is typically a lot of water in and on the ground. As a result, trail surfaces can be slippery or even impassable and the risk of hypothermia is extremely high if trail users get wet. In many areas of southern Ontario, the conditions that occur during freeze-up and thaw are predominant throughout the winter months . Trails that cross water courses without the use of solid structures (e.g., ice crossings) and trail environments that accumulate substantial amounts of water during these times should be closed to use, for the safety of trail users and protection of the environment, until the trail conditions have stabilized.

Changing from Other Standards to these Guidelines

These design guidelines are based on current research for both trail sustainability and universal design. They generally differ very little from existing guidelines for trails designed for human-powered users. Where there are differences, in most cases the current guidelines are less restrictive and trail groups can follow more restrictive standards without modification.

Traditional guidelines for remote/wilderness trails are the one area where differences between the traditional and current guidelines will require trail designers to change "the way they do things". However, trail designers are free to use their creativity to achieve the current guidelines while retaining the desired remote/wilderness trail experience. For trails that have traditionally been designed according to remote/wilderness trail standards, consider design changes such as the following:

• Provide level areas on or at the side of the trail every 25 m to 50 m when tread slopes are above 5%.
• Provide a trail tread that is firm and stable.
• Provide a trail tread that is 15 cm wider on each side.

Footnotes

[22]

Beers, D and Knapp, K. (In press). Best Management Practices for Trail Layout and Design . Sacramento: California Department of Parks and Recreation.

[23]

Parker, T.S. (2004) Natural Surface Trails by Design Physical and Human Design Essentials of Sustainable, Enjoyable Trails . Boulder, CO: Natureshape.

[24]

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design - Ontario. Welcome to CPTED Ontario . [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.cptedontario.ca.

[25]

Robert T. Steinholtz. Wetland Trail Design and Construction . [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/fspubs/01232833/index.htm

[26]

The National Center on Accessibility. Surfaces . [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.ncaonline.org/products/surfaces/index.shtml

[27]

Refer to Appendix A: Glossary of terms for definitions of each characteristic.

[28]

British Columbia Ministry of Forests (2001). Recreation Trail Manual: Chapter 10.3 Trail Design. [On-line] Retrieved 31 july 2006 http://www.tsa.gov.bc.ca/publicrec/manual/chap10/chap10.htm

[29]

Access Board. (1999). Final Report of the Outdoor Recreation Regulatory Negotiation Committee for Developed Outdoor Recreation Areas . Washington, DC: U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board. [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from www.access-board.gov.

[30]

The Bruce Trail Association. (2001) Guide for Trail Workers . 3 rd Edition. Hamilton: Author.

[31]

Opening size is measured perpendicular or diagonal to the user's direction of travel.

[32]

International Mountain Bicycling Association. (2004) Trail Solutions: IMBA's Guide to Building Sweet Singletrack . Boulder, CO: Author.

[33]

Refer to Appendix A: Glossary of terms for definitions of each characteristic.

[34]

British Columbia Ministry of Forests (2001). Recreation Trail Manual: Chapter 10.3 Trail Design. [On-line] Retrieved 31 july 2006 http://www.tsa.gov.bc.ca/publicrec/manual/chap10/chap10.htm

[35]

Access Board. (1999). Final Report of the Outdoor Recreation Regulatory Negotiation Committee for Developed Outdoor Recreation Areas . Washington, DC: U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board. [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from www.access-board.gov.

[36]

The Bruce Trail Association. (2001) Guide for Trail Workers . 3 rd Edition. Hamilton: Author.

[37]

Recommendations for grade and cross slope are given by the percentage slope and the length of continuous slope permitted. For example, "5 - any" indicates a grade of 5% can continue for any distance

[38]

Slopes above 10% are not recommended.

[39]

The Bruce Trail Association. (2001) Guide for Trail Workers . 3 rd Edition. Hamilton: Author. pp. 39.

[40]

Refer to Appendix A: Glossary of terms for definitions of each characteristic.

[41]

Research in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness in Montana (1978-1989) demonstrated that trails built with a width less than 1.0 metres were trampled by users until the width increased to 1.1 metres (an increase in width of 47%. In contrast, more highly used trails that were constructed to a width of 1.2 metres were only slightly increased in width by users (up to 1.3 metres). These results demonstrate that even in wilderness areas, trail users require a tread of at least 1.0 metres or else they will step off of the prepared tread and create a wider trail (Cole, DN. (1991). Changes on Trails in the Selway-Bitterrooot Wilderness, Montana, 1978-89. US Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Research Paper INT-450.

[42]

Access Board. (1999). Final Report of the Outdoor Recreation Regulatory Negotiation Committee for Developed Outdoor Recreation Areas . Washington, DC: U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board. [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from www.access-board.gov.

[43]

The Bruce Trail Association. (2001) Guide for Trail Workers . 3 rd Edition. Hamilton: Author.

[44]

It is important to emphasize that these clearance heights are above the trail tread, which is not necessarily the same as the ground . In winter, as snow accumulates and is compacted from trail use, the location of the trail tread may be substantially higher than ground level.

[45]

Specifications for the width and height of the additional buffer zone include the width or height of the trail tread .

[46]

Distance that an object can protrude into the clear tread width or clear height.

[47]

Canadian Standards Association. (2004). Accessible Design for the Built Environment . CSA Standard B651-04. Mississauga: Author.

[48]

Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat. Tactile Signage: Sign System and Installation Guide. [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/fip-pcim/man_4_3b_e.asp

[49]

Canadian National Institute for the Blind. (1998) Clearing Our Path . Toronto: Author.

[50]

Contrast = [ (B1-B2) ÷ B1 ] × 100, where B1 = light reflectance value of the light area and B2 = light reflectance value of the dark area

[51]

Trapp, S., Gross, M., and Zimmerman, R. (1994). Signs, Trails, and Wayside Exhibits: Connecting People and Places. UW-SP Foundation Press, Inc., Interpreter's Handbook Series, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, pp 18.

[52]

INMAGINE. Illustrations Photos / Universal Symbols Images . [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.inmagine.com/universal-symbols-photos/imageclub-icv019

[53]

Beneficial Designs, Inc. P.O. Box 69, Minden, NV 89423, 775-783-8822, www.beneficialdesigns.com.

[54]

Ontario Ministry of Transportation. (1995). Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices . Toronto: Author.

[55]

Victor Ford Associates Inc. (1997). Design, Signage and Maintenance Guidelines: Waterfront Trail. Waterfront Regeneration Trust. Toronto Ontario