Guidelines and Best Practices for the Design, Construction and Maintenance of Sustainable Trails for All Ontarians - Trails for All Ontarians Collaborative 2006
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There are many ways to build a trail. Detailed information about materials and construction techniques for the trail should be developed during the trail design phase. The construction crew leader uses the detailed construction log created during trail design to ensure that the trail is constructed as intended . The specific construction techniques on each trail will vary, depending on many factors (e.g., intended trail experience, type and volume of trail users). The trail designer will have considered the range of abilities among trail users as well as environmental factors in order to determine the final trail design. The designer will also have worked closely with the landowner to ensure that the final trail design will be supported and accepted. It is important that the construction crew follow the construction log details as closely as possible , so that "as built" will be virtually the same as "as designed".
The construction techniques described in this "best practice" document are intended for use by volunteers who will be building trails without using heavy machinery . They are the recommended minimum standard for trail design, construction and maintenance. Volunteer labour and hand tools are the source of most Ontario trails. Trails professional unfamiliar with sustainable trail design will also find these "best practices" informative. It is essential that the person leading the trail construction work be thoroughly familiar with all of the design and construction standards that apply to the trail . Trail designers and construction crew leaders should strive to ensure that every trail meets not only these minimum guidelines, but also any additional guidelines that may apply to specific trails or managed lands. Otherwise, the volunteer labour used to construct the trail may be for nought if, after construction, sections of the trail do not meet required standards and have to be re-done.
Once the route is final, trail construction usually proceeds in five broad steps . The order of completion will vary depending on the specific site conditions. The steps are:
Each of these steps (described in subsequent sections) requires various materials and tools. It is important that the materials and tools be carefully chosen to ensure that they are suited to the specific task and local conditions. Making good choices of material and tools will save time and costs.
It is important that every trail be constructed in a manner that respects the natural surroundings. People use trails to make contact with the natural environment, and research clearly shows that 90% of the environmental impacts caused by sustainable trails occur during construction and initial use. It is a misconception that the environmental damage from a trail results primarily from ongoing trail use. However, if a trail is constructed using these "best practices" for sustainability and universal design, only minimal environmental impacts will occur after the first year of trail use. [56] Your challenge, as a trail builder, is to limit the environmental damage during trail construction as much as possible .
Erosion and compaction of the soil adjacent to the trail tread are the two largest problems faced by trail builders . Erosion and compaction modify the trail's local environment by changing the way that water, soil and nutrients move about. It is a common misconception that erosion and compaction are "unavoidable", as if they inevitably and naturally result from trail construction and use. This need not be the case. By constructing a sustainable trail tread , that is itself properly compacted and suitable for the type and amount of trail users, the erosion and compaction of areas adjacent to the trail tread can be largely avoided . If compaction of the trail tread will potentially damage sensitive plants or trees, the design of the trail should be re-considered to ensure that the tread is located in more appropriate soils and vegetation.
To minimize soil erosion and compaction on areas adjacent to the trail tread , design and construct your trail so that:
In addition to minimizing the erosion and compaction of soil adjacent to the trail, the uniqueness and sensitivity of trailside vegetation must also be carefully considered and appropriately managed . The aesthetic appeal of a trail is enhanced if it takes the trail user through a variety of vegetation. Vegetation can be used to protect privacy, provide vistas, and enhance public safety. Close to the trail edge, leave vegetation so that it looks undisturbed. This will discourage users from going off of the trail tread and the foliage can help to reduce the impact of rainfall on the surrounding soil. If vegetation adjacent to the trail is damaged or must be removed during trail construction, ensure that the area is re-planted with native species as soon as the damaging construction work has been completed.
The construction of a trail often also provides opportunities to carry out habitat restoration or enhancement projects. Actively look for opportunities to improve or restore the trail environment as part of your trail construction project. Within urban areas especially, there may be funding available to encourage schools to be involved in naturalization projects or for the planting of native species. Similarly, the construction of a stream crossing can often offer opportunities for projects that will stabilize rapidly eroding banks or streams with pools and riffles.
When planning an environmental restoration or rehabilitation project, be sure to obtain all of the necessary permits and approvals. Wetland projects will require approval from the Ministry of Natural Resources. Conservation Authority approval may also be required, and the staff can provide detailed information about species at risk or other special considerations that may apply to the trail environment.
The first step in constructing a trail is to complete the clearing of the trail corridor. With the initial brushing and clearing of the trail corridor completed during the design phase (see Guidelines for Trail Design - Clear Corridor ), some of the clearing work will already be done. At this stage, the crew follows along the final flag line for the tread alignment, ensuring that all vegetation and obstacles (e.g., rocks) have been removed. There are three goals for this clearing work:
In most places, especially in southern Ontario, clearing the trail corridor will require removal of the existing vegetation. On the trail tread, all organic material must be removed in order to optimize the sustainability of the constructed tread over time. Adjacent to the trail tread, it is usually best to leave as much of the natural vegetation as possible . A well-designed trail will minimize the need for vegetation removal by taking advantage of naturally occurring clearings and not requiring the removal of larger trees (which are an important environmental and aesthetic asset).
It is also important to remove all objects that protrude into the trail tread area . Rocks protruding from the trail tread are a tripping hazard for trail users, particularly those who are less agile (e.g., older adults) and those who may be inattentive (e.g., children). Objects that overhang the trail tread above the ground are also hazardous. Bumped heads or "whacks" on the body are not a component of a "safe trail experience". Objects overhanging the trail tread are particularly hazardous for people with limited sight and those who may be inattentive (e.g., children).
In certain special situations (e.g., tundra and riparian areas), existing vegetation must be left as untouched and undisturbed as possible to maintain environmental quality. In these special circumstances, the trail tread must be built above and around existing vegetation (refer to Tread Structures Above the Surrounding Terrain for additional information). Contact your local Conservation Authority and office of the Ministry of Natural Resources for detailed information about what, if any, work can be undertaken in these environments.
Occasionally it may be desirable, or even necessary, to make additional small openings in the vegetation along the trail. There are a number of reasons that additional openings may be desirable (e.g., provide a view, allow a rest area, provide a break in the "tunnel effect" of continuous canopy, management of species growth by altering sun penetration). The location of these areas and the work required should be specified in the trail construction log. It is important that all decisions regarding vegetation removal be informed and approved . In areas where the clearing limits are increased above the minimum, it is helpful to include a brief note about the reason(s) for the decision in the construction log. Trail volunteers often equate the removal of vegetation with environmental damage . Therefore, it is important for the construction crew leader to carefully monitor the work to ensure that the intended clearing limits are achieved throughout the trail.
The specific methods and extent of clearing will vary, depending on the type of tread surface to be constructed. If an elevated tread surface (e.g., boardwalk, causeway) will be constructed, the initial steps to remove existing vegetation will likely not be required. However, to clear the trail corridor for safe and sustainable construction and use of a ground-level trail tread, complete the following steps:
The clearing limits for the trail corridor should be specified in the construction log. Decisions regarding the size of the trail tread area and buffer zone are made during the design phase , and are typically based on input from local environmental experts and the landowner in addition to the needs of trail users.
The clearing limits for the trail corridor will be determined by two factors:
The designed trail tread area is the width and height of clear space required by permitted trail users . For a hiking trail, the designed width should be 1.0 metre (3 feet) or more and the designed height should be 2.0 metres (6.6 feet) or more. For trails that permit other user groups, the design width and height may be increased.
The buffer zone is the area on both sides and above the designed trail tread area . The purpose of the buffer zone is to establish the sight lines required for safe trail use, minimize the damage to trailside vegetation from users who stray off of the tread, and ensure that vegetation does not encroach onto the trail tread between the times for scheduled maintenance. The buffer zone should be at least 0.3 metres (12 inches) wide on each side of the trail and at least 0.5 metres (20 inches) above the top of the designated trail tread area. Many trail managers and landowners require larger buffer zones, particularly on more remote trails where maintenance is infrequent, on trails where users may be travelling at higher speeds, or where the position of vegetation is routinely affected by heavy ice, rain or snow conditions.
Construction crews should not make changes to the plans for vegetation removal described in the construction log. If additional vegetation removal seems to be required, the trail designer, a person who knows the local natural vegetation and the landowner should be involved in making and approving any changes. Trail workers should also make sure to clear the corridor to the width specified in the construction log. Many trail volunteers may mistakenly believe that clearing less vegetation will result in less environmental impact. However, trail impact research has clearly demonstrated that the vegetation loss and vegetation impact is much greater if the vegetation removed during construction is not wide enough for two trail users to walk the trail side by side. If vegetation is not carefully cut by trail workers so that the tread and buffer zone are free of vegetation, inevitably trail users will bend or break the vegetation to get it out of their way. Broken branches often result in stripped sections of bark which leave the vegetation at much greater risk for infection. In some cases, the stripped bark may actually kill small saplings.
A wide variety of hand tools can be used for trail clearing. Specific tool choices will depend upon the type and diameter of the vegetation to be removed. Make sure that all trail workers have the training and experience to use tools appropriately and safely .
Powered mowers (e.g., string mower [57]) and weed cutters (often called "weed whip", "swizzle" or "weed whacker") can be used to quickly clear fields of grassy vegetation. If powered equipment will be used, the work crew should make a "first pass" to remove the larger saplings before the weed clearing work begins. Often, alternating passes of removing saplings and weeding are required. The saplings are difficult to see before the weeds are cleared, but the weeds are more difficult to clear when they surround more substantial vegetation. For particularly dense vegetation, a Swedish brush axe (also known as a Sandvik) can be used. It functions similar to a machete, but the shorter blade and long handle make it much safer to use.
Cutting and digging tools are sharp and care must be taken in their use. Chainsaws are extremely dangerous and should only be used by properly trained individuals. Tools that bounce or glance off tree trunks or stumps when swung are a common cause of injury among trail volunteers . Keep your tools sharp, and ensure volunteers know how to use them correctly before letting them on the trail. Everyone using these tools must have access to and use the necessary safety equipment (e.g., glasses, safety boots, gloves and leg guards).
Hand-held pruning shears and secateurs are effective tools for snipping through small twigs (less than 2 cm (0.8 inches) in diameter). Long handled by-pass pruners , anvil clippers , loppers , or folding handsaws can be used for larger saplings and twigs. Pruners and loppers are generally preferred, because they give a clean cut (allowing the bark to heal more quickly) and are safer to use and carry. Models with ratchet or power assist features can effectively cut vegetation up to 5 cm (2 inches) in diameter. Long handled tools and tools with telescopic handles are particularly important for trimming small branches from mature trees. The long handles ensure that the worker can reach into the tree and make a clean cut through the collar of the branch, adjacent to the tree trunk.
For larger branches and tree trunks of more than 5 cm (2 inches) in diameter, saws are usually the "tool of choice". Saws provide a smoother cut, are generally more efficient, and are easy and reasonably safe for volunteers to use. Handsaws are available in a variety of sizes and styles. Pruning, bow or crosscut saws are most commonly used by trail volunteers. Pole saws are useful for cutting limbs that otherwise would be out-of-reach during trail maintenance sessions (e.g., those limbs that are out of reach in the summer but in the face of skiers in the winter).
While chainsaws may be the fastest and most efficient way to clear large trees, stumps or logs, they are heavy to carry over distances and dangerous for inexperienced users. Chainsaws should only be used by individuals who are thoroughly and properly trained .
Training courses in the use of chainsaws are available through many schools and organizations. If chain saws are to be used on a trail, the work should be done by an experienced crew (the person cutting plus two assistants) at a time when other trail workers and trail users are not in the area (i.e., either before or after the other trail work in the area has been completed).
Cut large branches through the collar. If the branch is large, make the first cut up from the bottom a short distance from the collar. The second cut is made through the collar, cutting down from the top.
Grubbing tools, such as a Pulaski, McLeod, grub hoe, fire rake or mattock, are used to loosen dirt, cut through roots and remove ground cover vegetation. Workers using a Pulaski, McLeod or mattock must be constantly aware of the position of the cutting blade (which is opposite the digging tool).
Shovels are the primary tool used for digging and moving earth or rock. They are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. Square or flat shovels are suitable for moving loose earth and for shaping the trail tread. Round-point shovels are best for digging. Longer handles will reduce the amount of bending required but many people find a short-handle shovel better for carrying heavy loads. The optimal style and size of shovel for each trail task will depend on both the type of work being performed and the preferences of the trail workers. The pick end of a Pulaski or mattock can also be used to loosen compacted soil.
The removal of large rocks from the trail tread should be a relatively infrequent work task. In most cases, it is preferable to design the trail so that is bypasses the large rock. Bypassing the rock will have less environmental impact, and it is also less work. If the removal or relocation of a large rock is specified in the construction log, tools such as a pry bar , rock bar , digging bar , or wrecking bar will be used. In some cases, a winch or grip hoist may also be required. The person in charge of the trail crew is responsible for ensuring that the workers have the appropriate training and experience before any specialized techniques or equipment are used. Seek assistance from experienced personnel if there is any concern regarding the trail crew's ability to complete the required work.
Trail drainage structures can be used to separate the trail tread and buffer zone from natural drainage channels that contain concentrations of flowing water. The installation of any type of drainage structure will require permits or approvals from the Ministry of Natural Resources or the Conservation Authority because changes to water flow patterns in the trail environment can have significant impacts on ground on water-based habitats. The construction methods and materials must also be approved to ensure that sediment or construction debris does not adversely affect fish habitat. The permits will provide detailed information about how and when the work can be completed as well as the size and configuration of the approved drainage structure.
Drainage structures within the trail tread or buffer zone should always be of a "closed" design (e.g., culvert, drainage lens). A closed drainage structure is an alternative to building a tread surface above the water flow (e.g., boardwalk). Either a drainage structure or an elevated tread is necessary to prevent the trail tread from having a significant impact on natural drainage channels that either intermittently or continuously contain a reasonably large volume of water.
Drainage structures can be made of many materials including plastic, metal, wood and stone. Each has advantages and will influence construction work in different ways.
The size of the drainage structure, and the materials used to construct them, depend on the location of the natural drainage channel and the volume, continuity and dispersion of the water flow. The aesthetics of the trail environment are also considered during the design of trail drainage structures. The design of the drainage structure is crucial if it is to function in a sustainable manner with a minimum of maintenance. For this reason, the size, material, location and grade of the drainage structure specified in the construction log must be closely followed . The person responsible for the construction crew must assume overall responsibility for ensuring that the constructed drainage structure conforms to the specified design. The construction of a drainage structure is complex, and the steps involved vary each design . Ensure that the trail designer and crew have the knowledge required for the proper construction or installation of the drainage structure.
Culverts support the trail tread so that it does not interfere with a natural drainage channel. They are deceptively "simple-looking" drainage structures. Nothing would seem easier than to dig a trench, lay in a pipe, and put the earth back on top. However, experienced trail volunteers know that careful installation and attention to detail is required to install a culvert that will continue to function effectively with little maintenance . Whenever possible, have someone with experience (i.e., they have previously installed several culverts that worked well for more than one year) involved in the culvert installation.
In recent years, culverts have typically been plastic or galvanized metal pipes that are purchased "ready to go". Corrugated metal culverts are typically used for larger water volumes. It is also possible to build culverts using rocks or logs, but these structures require a lot more work and significantly more expertise. All culverts should have a diameter of at least 30 cm (12 inches) so that maintenance of water flow through the culvert will be easier (e.g., a shovel can be used to clear material blocking water flow).
The trail designer will have specified the size and type of culvert required in the construction log, based on the volume and frequency of water flow. From a sustainability perspective, it is essential that culverts are used to protect and maintain naturally occurring drainage channels so that they are not blocked by the construction of the trail tread. Efforts to force water through a culvert that is not in the natural drainage channel cause substantial damage to the natural environment and are rarely effective. Construction crews must be careful to position the culvert in the correct position. The construction crew leader must also ensure that all necessary permits for the use of a culvert have been obtained before the construction work begins .
The steps to install a plastic or metal culvert are:
A drainage lens is constructed below grade to allow for water movement underneath the trail tread. It is typically used instead of a culvert where the flow of water is smaller in volume or more dispersed across the terrain. A "French drain" is a term often used to refer to a very similar structure that is built into, rather than below, the trail tread. A drainage lens should be used instead of a French drain so that trail users of all abilities will be able to safely negotiate the trail.
The steps for constructing a drainage lens are:
Open drainage structures, such as ditches, French drains or bleeders, have traditionally been used to channel water in trail environments. However, using open drainage structures within the trail tread creates a trip hazard and many trail users find it difficult to navigate the water-filled channel or the uneven surface of drain rock. For these reasons, open drainage structures should not be constructed within the trail tread or buffer zone (i.e., anywhere that users may be expected to travel).
The trail designer should carefully consider the environmental impact of an open drainage structure before including it in the construction log. The advantage of open drainage structures is that they often require fewer materials (i.e., less expensive) and with little maintenance or observation they may be less likely to clog. Therefore, the construction of open drainage structures can be considered in areas away from the trail tread and buffer zone. For example, they can be used to contain water flow within a natural drainage channel that connects to a closed drainage structure (e.g., culvert) that crosses the trail.
To construct an open drainage structure:
Tread structures are used when the natural terrain cannot provide or should not be used for a sustainable tread . The structure raises the tread above the natural (i.e., difficult or sensitive) terrain. Typically, tread structures are built in areas with a lot of water (either visible water or saturated soil). Tread structures can also be used to protect areas with delicate plants (e.g., tundra) or make the surface underfoot more even and stable (e.g., crossing a rock slide).
The terminology and construction methods used in relation to tread structures varies dramatically. The feedback on initial drafts of this resource was extremely diverse, polarized and variable from trail group to trail group. Opposing and strongly held views were difficult (and in some cases impossible) to reconcile. However, there was agreement on two general categories for trail tread structures:
Intermittent contact structures are preferred for areas where water is a dominant feature of the landscape. Even if water is not visible, the construction of a continuous contact structure can significantly damage the natural drainage patterns. Continuous contact structures cannot be used in areas where delicate plants must be protected . Although continuous contact structures have historically been used extensively to construct trail tread, from a sustainability perspective they have limited use. They should be used primarily, in select locations not affected by surface water flow, when providing a more consistent tread surface is a priority.
The trail designer will consider a wide range of factors (e.g., environmental impact, permitted trail users) in deciding on the type of tread structure required. The construction of tread structures requires substantial labour, but it is often the "activity of choice" for volunteers who can easily see the results of their efforts. The primary responsibility of the construction crew is to ensure that "as built" is the same as "as designed" (i.e., the constructed structure complies with the specified design as closely as possible) and that there is as little impact on the surrounding environment from the construction activities as possible .
As previously stated, 90% of the environmental damage related to a recreation trail will occur during construction and initial use. If the trail is constructed for sustainability, the environmental impact will be almost entirely related to the initial trail construction. As a result, construction crews have almost total control over the environmental impacts that will occur . Negative environmental impacts that can result from trail structure construction typically include:
In order to minimize the environmental impact of trail structure construction, work crews should :
Prior to the start of construction, it is essential that all necessary approvals and permits have been obtained . Confirm that the local Conservation Authority and any other relevant government offices or organizations have reviewed and approved all aspects of the proposed work. Approval must be obtained not only for what will be constructed, but also the timing of construction. Exactly who will need to approve the project will vary, depending on factors such as land ownership, type of environment, natural habitat, presence of water bodies, etc. The land management agency should be able to provide the names and contact information for the relevant agencies and organizations.
Elevated tread structures are the most costly and labour-intensive aspect of trail construction. For bridges, there are additional liability concerns because the trail user is elevated above the surrounding terrain. Regardless of size, all components of an elevated tread structure must be constructed to appropriate standards for load carrying capacity. Trail designers must ensure that the structure specifications in the construction log conform to all required safety and engineering standards .
Trail volunteers use a wide variety of terminology to describe the tread structures that they build to elevate the trail tread above the surrounding terrain. For the purposes of this resource, the following terms are used:
Regardless of which anchoring technique is used, the height of the walking surface above the terrain, or the stability of the soil, the same general steps are used:
More detailed information on each of these steps is provided in the following sections.
Choose construction materials carefully!
It is critically important that the construction materials used for elevated tread structures are carefully selected based on the demands of the environment and the safety of trail users. Some types of wood (e.g., cedar) are less likely to rot , particularly if the weather allows them to dry out intermittently. An oil-based stain is suitable for lengthening the durability of natural wood structures in some natural environments. Plastic lumber products can also be used, but they will require much more extensive support structures. Regular maintenance will also be required to prevent the growth of algae which makes the plastic lumber surface extremely slippery when it is wet.
Pressure treated wood is often the "building material of choice" for tread structures because it is expected to last a long time. Until January 2004, wood was commonly treated with Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA). CCA has been linked to health problems for many people. Since 2004, arsenic, a known cancer-causing agent, has been removed from the chemicals used to treat wood. H owever, building supply companies were, and still are, allowed to sell off existing stocks of CCA treated wood. Today pressure treated wood is typically created with chemicals such as amine copper quat ( ACQ ) or copper azole ( CA ). At the very least, these options are less toxic than CCA. However, some health concerns remain and it is still advisable to take precautionary measures when using wood treated with these chemicals. Lumber companies continue to develop non-toxic wood preservatives. Products using sodium silicate [58] are promising, but when this resource was created they were not yet available in Ontario.
Always use safety equipment when cutting and using treated wood, such as gloves, glasses, and a dust mask .Anchor sills (also called mud sills) provide support for the stringers and are the only part of the elevated tread structure that contacts the ground . Sills can be made from a variety of materials, including logs, lumber and concrete. The size and number of sills will be determined by the required load carrying capacity and the type of terrain. If the natural soils are stable, a smaller sill will be required. In areas where soils are unstable, larger sills will be required. Parking lot curb blocks make excellent sills, although they can be very difficult to transport.
The vertical dimension of the sill should ensure that the top of the sill is at least 15 cm (6 inches) above the adjacent terrain to separate the stringers from the ground. If one sill is not high enough, a small crib can be built. To build a crib, put two logs parallel to each other on the bottom row and then add a second row of logs that is perpendicular to the first row. Additional rows can be added as necessary, each perpendicular to the last, to achieve the desired change in height. Ensure that the top row of logs is perpendicular to the boardwalk stringers. A small gabion basket can also be used in place of an anchor sill. Sills, cribs and gabion baskets should never be located within a watercourse where they would interfere with the natural water flow patterns. Refer to Construction of Abutments for additional information about cribs and gabion baskets.
To install anchor sills:
Research in Alaska suggests that cellular containment panels can be used for trails in areas saturated with water (e.g., muskeg) [59]. The existing soil and organic material is not removed and the panels are placed on top of the existing terrain. The sills are mounted on top of the panels. The weight of the sills keeps the panels in place and, with time, vegetation will grow through the panels to restore a more natural appearance. Refer to Binding or Stabilization Materials for additional information on panel installation.
Anchor posts are used instead of sills when greater stability of the support structure is required. In Ontario, the use of anchor posts for the construction of trail tread structures is relatively unusual. Bedrock, sand and muskeg areas are just a few examples of the types of terrain that are not suitable for anchor posts. If anchor posts are to be used, engineering expertise should be obtained to determine the size, depth and location of anchor posts. Because of the complexity of installation, anchor posts are seldom installed by trail volunteers . The assistance of an experienced construction professional is recommended when anchor posts are required to support an elevated tread structure.
There are three types of anchor posts that are commonly used for trail tread structures:
Abutments are structures anchored into the terrain that support the stringers. Typically they are used to anchor a bridge when the banks are quite steep, or when the stringers need to be supported at a height off the ground. Permits will be required for any abutment construction that is in the vicinity of a body of water (e.g., creek). Depending on the ownership and management of the land and environmental factors, permits may be required from a number of different sources. The landowner should be able to provide the list of agencies and organizations that must be contacted regarding permits.
Constructing an abutment into an embankment makes it easier to construct the elevated tread at the same height as the surrounding terrain. However, construction on the banks of water bodies is extremely complex and can cause significant environmental damage if done in correctly. Professional expertise is required for the design and construction of abutments .
Cribs and gabion baskets are commonly used techniques for constructing abutments with volunteer labour. In both cases, a containment structure is built and then the structure is filled with rock to ensure its stability. In the case of gabion baskets, the containment structure is wire mesh [60]. For cribs, the containment structure is typically made of wood. Cribs are built with a series of layers, each perpendicular to the layers above and below. Engineering expertise is required to determine the location, size, materials, construction methods and anchoring systems for all abutments . The footing of abutments must be on ground that is solid and dry. Abutments on flat terrain can sit on compacted mineral soil. Abutments on steep terrain must be tied into the slope. Before constructing any type of abutment, the plans and details of the construction methods and timing must be approved by the local Conservation Authority and/or office of the Ministry of Natural Resources. Gabion and cribs should never be constructed within the water flow channel.
Just as it is important for each anchor to be level from side to side, it is equally important that adjacent anchors be relatively level to each other. If adjacent anchors differ significantly in height, the finished tread structure will be sloped and difficult to navigate. Sloped stringers can also be more difficult to stabilize.
Use a laser level or clinometer (refer to Appendix G for details) to determine the slope between adjacent anchors. If the slope is more than 4% (i.e., a height difference of more than 4 cm for every 1 metre of horizontal length or 1 inch for every 25 inches of horizontal length) the height of the lower anchor point should be increased.
To increase the height of the lower anchor point , complete the following steps:
Stringers are the long spans, parallel with the direction of trail travel, which connect adjacent anchors and support the tread . Typically, they are made of wood, either log or lumber. For some projects, steel beams may be used as stringers.
The length of a stringer should not exceed 5 metres (16 feet). That is, the distance spanned between adjacent anchors should be no more than 4 metres (13 feet) . If longer spans are required, professional expertise assistance should be obtained because the diameter and strength of the stringers will need to be carefully calculated.
The stringers are installed after the construction of adjacent anchors is complete. The installation of stringers is similar to the positioning of sills. The steps are:
Shimming with small pieces of wood is commonplace and effective. Since the wood pieces are elevated above the soil, they are not particularly prone to rot.
Decking is the term used for the walking surface of elevated tread structures. Typically, 2 x 4, 2 x 6 or 2 x 8 lumber is used for decking. Use rough sawn lumber for decking as it provides a tread with more "grip". Thicker lumber (3" or 4" boards) should be used if the distance between stringers is more than 0.75 metres (2.5 feet) or if heavier load bearing (e.g., equestrians, stock, motorized trail users) is required. Avoid the use of tree branches for decking because the rounded walking surface can be hazardous for many trail users. Plastic planks are also used by some trail organizations. However, they require additional support (i.e., more stringers placed closely together) and maintenance (to prevent the growth of algae that makes the surface very slippery), so the choice of this material must be carefully considered. Pressure treaded lumber can also be very slippery when wet so its use is not recommended for decking.
To install lumber decking:
The use of logs for decking is not appropriate except in very remote areas where lumber is not available. If logs must be used, the topside of each log should be "shaved" with a chain saw to create a flat surface for trail users to stand on. Spaces between the round log edges should be filled with compacted crushed rock, soil or wood chips so that trail users have a consistently firm, level and stable tread. Remember, putting soil or wood chips on top of the logs will encourage them to rot more quickly.
In areas where the decking will be almost continuously wet (e.g., in the spray from a waterfall or shoreline), expanded metal (flat, metal lattice or grid) or tensar netting [61] can be added to the top surface of the wood deck to make it less slippery under wet conditions. However, care must be taken to ensure that the metal or netting sits flat and tight on the wood surface . Even small sections of metal or netting that are not flat and tight to the wood surface can be a tripping hazard, particularly for children and people who use walking sticks, crutches or canes.
A key component of the design of elevated tread structures is that the parts are separated from contact with the ground to decrease the speed of rot in the wood components. Even though the top of the sill is relatively close to the ground (gap of at least 15 cm or 6 inches), the trail user walking on top of the elevated structure, which is mounted on stringers, will usually be elevated above the remaining trail surface by at least 0.5 metres. The approach structures at each end of the elevated tread enable trail users to navigate the difference in height between the two tread surfaces .
The design and construction of the approach is critical to ensuring that trail users of all abilities can access the elevated tread structure easily and safely. The approach structure should always provide a continuously ramped surface that smoothly connects the ground level and elevated tread surfaces. The slope up the ramp should not exceed 10%, and ramps below 5% slope are recommended. Steps onto the elevated surface can also be provided, and may be helpful to some trail users or if the height differential is substantial, but a ramped surface is always required . Ensuring ramped access will also discourage cyclists from by-passing the elevated tread when water levels are low, in order to avoid dismounting.
An approach structure is not required if the elevated tread structure is constructed on top of abutments that are excavated into the ground so that the elevated tread structure begins level with the ground level trail tread. The excavation and construction of these types of abutments is complex, and professional assistance is recommended.
The construction log will provide detailed information on the length and slope for the access ramp surfaces. Because the access ramps are typically designed to have the steepest acceptable grade, it is critically important that construction crews build the access ramps exactly as designed . Changing a ramp designed as 3 metres (10 feet) in length to be a ramp of 2.8 metres (9.2 feet) in length can mean the difference between a safe and accessible elevated tread and a trail that encourages trail users of different abilities to navigate an uncomfortable and potentially unsafe situation.
There are essentially two types of approach structures:
The construction log will specify the design to be used. The two types of structure are relatively similar. The primary difference is whether the elevated tread decking is extended onto the approach (and then earthen-gravel fill is used only for the final connection to the lower trail tread) or whether the entire approach surface is constructed from earthen-gravel fill. The following instructions are for a ramped approach structure . If an earthen-gravel fill approach is required, begin at Step #3.
The trail designer will determine the need for handrails based on a variety of factors, such as the height of the elevated tread above the surrounding terrain, the anticipated range of abilities among trail users and safety codes and regulations. The Ontario Building Code specifies that "guards" (i.e., railing, wall) are required if the walking surface is more than 60 cm (2 feet) above the surrounding ground surface [62]. Handrails are not required on trails because of changes in the grade of the trail. For example, if the grade on the trail exceeds 5% (1:20), handrails are not required on the trail. Trail designers must ensure that trail complies with all safety codes related to the provision of handrails. The trail designer may also require one or more railings in other situations, depending on what is required for the safety of trail users and to assist them in making a steady crossing.
There are a wide variety of handrail designs and materials that can be used. The choices made will depend on the aesthetics of the trail environment and required safety codes. Details of the size and design of handrails to be constructed will be provided by the trail designer in the construction log. Important points to keep in mind during the construction of handrails are:
Edge protection may be desirable on elevated tread structures that do not have handrails. Trail designers are not required to provide edge protection on elevated tread structures, except where required by local trail standards or safety regulations. Edge protection (also called a "bull rail") is often included on elevated tread structures that are used by horses. Handrails, rather than edge protection, are preferred for trails that permit cyclists.
If desired, edge protection can be constructed from either logs or lumber. If provided:
Docks and floating bridges are most commonly used on water trails (e.g., canoe or kayak routes). However, floating bridges can also be appropriate for crossing small bodies of water. The use of a floating bridge rather than an elevated tread structure must be determined in conjunction with the land managing organization. Permits will be required for all construction work because it occurs within a body of water . The local conservation authority should be contacted so that the proposed work can be reviewed and approved. The landowner should be able to provide the contact information for any additional agencies or organizations whose permission will be required.
The U.S. Forest Service has developed a good resource for the construction of floating trail bridges and docks [63]. It is available, free of charge, on the recreation trail resources web site of the U.S. Federal Highway Administration: http://wwwcf.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/rectrails/trailpub.htm.
The U.S. National Park Service has also recently published an excellent resource [64] on floating docks, launches and landings, which contains suggestions on how to design these facilities so that they are easier for people with disabilities to use. The design considerations recommended in that resource include:
Continuous contact tread structures are controversial in the trails community. Many people oppose the use of continuous contact tread structures because the design creates a continuous barrier that can substantially alter the natural drainage patterns of the trail environment. In general, the use of intermittent contact tread structures is recommended and the use of continuous contact structures should be limited to situations where intermittent contact structures are not feasible.
There is a wide variety of continuous contact tread structures that are used to build elevated trail tread. The terminology used to refer to these different types of structures also varies tremendously, based on the feedback received on the first draft of this resource. For the purposes of this resource, the following terms are used:
Choose construction materials carefully!
By design, the materials used for the construction of continuous contact elevated tread structures will be in "continuous contact" with the soils that occur naturally in the trail environment. This makes the materials more likely to rot, and increases the risk that contaminates from the materials will leach into the soil and impact the local habitat. Therefore, it is critically important that the construction materials used for these tread structures are carefully selected based on their potential impact on the environment as well as the safety of trail users. The use of rock or untreated types of wood that are less likely to rot (e.g., cedar) is strongly recommended . Refer to the Tread Structures Above the Surrounding Terrain section for additional information about the importance of material selection.
Always use safety equipment when cutting and using treated wood, such as gloves, glasses, and a dust mask .
The length, height, location and construction techniques for the causeway or turnpike will be determined by the trail designer. Factors such as environmental conditions, natural drainage patterns and trail user information will be combined to determine the type of elevated structure required. The location of causeways and turnpikes is critical to their success (or failure). Areas of very low or imperceptible water flow, or very intermittent drainage channels can easily be dammed by a causeway or turnpike that is constructed in the wrong location. Causeways and turnpikes should never be constructed in areas with visible, ground level water flow or areas with intermittent flooding . If construction crews arrive at the site and find evidence of surface water flow, construction should not begin until the plans for the elevated tread structure are reviewed.
Turnpike and causeway surfaces are long lasting, and low maintenance . Even if the sidewalls are constructed with logs, the rotted log will eventually be replaced by a duff berm that will still retain the drain rock and tread material. The crushed aggregate and other tread surface materials that can be used last longer and require less maintenance than wood plank surfaces. After the initial construction labour and expense, a turnpike will stay "high and dry" in all types of weather. Users will be able to travel through wet environments under enjoyable conditions without making a significant impact on the environment. The main drawbacks for turnpike or causeway use are the high potential for negative environmental impacts and the substantial amount of labour required during initial construction. Building a turnpike or causeway of any length requires an energetic trail crew that is not afraid of hard work.
The steps for constructing a turnpike or causeway are:
Corduroy is a technique that, in the past, was often used to construct a trail across wet terrain. Typically, it consisted of logs laid side-by-side across the tread, although some trail construction guides recommend that the logs be anchored together. However, corduroy is the source of many sustainability and access problems . The logs in corduroy will eventually rot and require replacement, increasing trail maintenance demands. Corduroy has a negative impact on healthy natural environments because of:
Trail users and wildlife are seldom comfortable walking on top of the corduroy. As a result, the environmental impact of trail use continues to increase as they go further and further off of the trail tread in order to find dry, firm and stable ground. For many trail users, stock and wildlife, trying to balance on corduroy, especially under wet conditions, can be dangerous. For all of these reasons, corduroy is not recommended .
The use of corduroy may be considered in very remote areas where other methods of elevated tread construction are not feasible. Corduroy may also be used on trails that are open for winter use only (e.g., cross country ski trails). If corduroy is used, the following methods of construction are essential:
A retaining wall is used to support the trail bench when the natural soil does not have the stability required for a trail tread. The retaining wall is built on the downhill side of the tread and then the trail bench is constructed between the retaining wall and the uphill slope. Some trail groups also use retaining walls to control sloughing of uphill material onto the trail tread. However, this is not recommended. Always construct the uphill slope so that it is at or below the angle of repose , this will allow the slope to naturally stabilize itself through re-vegetation. Retaining walls can also be used on very steep slopes, even if the natural soil is suitable for a trail tread. Constructing a retaining wall on the downhill side of a very steep slope decreases the size of the excavated trail bench and lowers the height of the back slope. For these reasons, retaining walls are often used to construct the landing of a switchback.
Retaining walls can be difficult to build and if the wall required will be more than 1 metre in height, experienced or professional help should be obtained . In general, the best option is to build the trail so that retaining walls are not required. The need for a retaining wall suggests that the natural soil or landform cannot support the trail tread . When that is the case, it invariably means much higher construction costs and more on-going trail maintenance. Before deciding to build a retaining wall, try to find a more suitable, alternative route for the trail.
Retaining walls can be built with a wide variety of materials, such as rocks, gabion baskets, logs, lumber, concrete and interlocking bricks. The choice of materials will depend on aesthetics, and the availability and suitability of materials in and for the trail environment. Building a safe and effective retaining wall involves more than just stacking materials . The slope of a retaining wall (the distance or angle that each row is set back on the previous row) should be determined by the steepness and stability of the slope as well as the performance characteristics of the material being used [66]. Design of the retaining wall must also consider drainage patterns, and how water will flow around and through the finished wall. When in doubt, seek professional advice.
The construction log will specify the materials to be used to construct the retaining wall. The materials are typically log, lumber, rock or interlocking stone. Once the drainage issues have been resolved, and the need for drainage pipes within the retaining wall has been determined, building a retaining wall will require the following steps:
When trails are located in steep terrain and the topography and available land will not allow the use of the more sustainable curvilinear trail alignment, a climbing turn or switchback may be required. Switchbacks and climbing turns allow a trail to reverse direction so that most of the tread can follow the natural contours of the terrain. A switchback will have a relatively level turning area. This ensures that trail users do not have to negotiate the fall line of the hill while on a steep slope. A climbing turn does not have one turning area, but gradually climbs and changes direction throughout the turn. Since trail users will be on a slope on the fall line in a climbing turn, climbing turns are best suited to gentler slopes.
Climbing turns and switchbacks must be built with the utmost care . Whenever trail users can see that the trail abruptly reverses direction, there will be an almost irresistible temptation to "short cut". Trail users going off the trail tread to take a shorter route will significantly impact vegetation and drainage patterns in the trail environment. Damage or removal of vegetation leaves the underlying soil, which is not compacted to be a trail tread, at high risk for erosion. Great care must be taken to camouflage the adjacent sections of trail so they are not visible to trail users until they virtually arrive at the turn. Installing handrails at knee and torso height on the trail tread as it approaches the switchback landing from uphill can be an effective method of encouraging trail users to follow the tread through the switchback. In some types of terrain, vegetation or natural rock outcroppings can also be used to camouflage the adjacent sections of trail tread.
To construct a climbing turn or switchback, perform the following steps:
After the trail route has been cleared, construction of the trail surface can begin. If the tread is to be the naturally occurring ground surface, it must be firm, stable, resistant to erosion and dry . Soils that contain small pieces of fractured rock (i.e., rock matrix with a variety of sizes of rock pieces) generally provide the most sustainable tread. If the trail alignment is optimal but the natural soils are not suitable, the use of tread stabilization techniques (e.g., soil hardening) or a constructed tread (e.g., boardwalk) will be required. It is inappropriate to construct the trail tread on sub-standard soils that cannot provide a sustainable tread .
Soil types change dramatically throughout every landscape. The trail designer will have considered the naturally occurring ground surface in making the tread material and construction decisions specified in the construction log. Good trail design will locate the trail on the most sustainable soils with appropriate grades , thus minimizing potential erosion. If substantial tread construction is specified in the construction log, it reflects the fact that the optimal trail alignment must cross an area with poor quality natural soils. The constructed tread provides a "structural solution" to the poor quality of the natural soil. The trail construction person needs to always "read the ground" for changes of soil type that may have been missed in the trail design phase . Construction crews should not alter the trail tread work specified in the construction log. If sub-standard soils are encountered during construction, the work should stop until the issue can be re-considered from a design perspective (i.e., consideration of a change in the trail alignment).
To determine if the naturally occurring soil is not suitable for constructing a sustainable tread:
Building trail tread is often "back-breaking" work. Natural environments rely on delicate patterns of water movement. Trails are not a part of the natural environment, and even the most sustainable trails will alter the natural patterns of water movement. It is almost impossible to underestimate the importance of maintaining natural drainage patterns both during trail construction and on-going trail use. Sustainable trails often require more work to construct, because they pull in and out of every natural drainage channel. However, this work is necessary to ensure that the impact of the tread on the natural drainage patterns is minimized, the tread will have the proper outslope for good drainage, and it will be level enough for safe and comfortable use.
The specific steps for constructing the trail tread will vary, depending on the quality of the natural soils, the terrain, and the type of tread material. In general, the steps will be:
Each of the steps used to create a natural surface trail is described in detail in the following sub-sections. Information on constructing hardened or constructed trail surfaces is provided in the section titled Constructed Trail Surfaces.
To prepare the ground for a natural surface tread:
The bench refers to the land on which the tread material rests. A "full bench tread" is one that is constructed by cutting the full width of the trail tread into the hillside. Although many people believe that "cutting a bench" is damaging to the trail environment, in fact a full bench tread provides the most sustainable design. Properly constructed, a full bench tread should last "forever" with virtually no maintenance .
A "partial bench" refers to a tread that is partly dug into the hillside and partly supported by fill that is contained with log edging or a retaining wall on the downhill side. Many trail crews prefer to build partial bench treads because a lot less excavation work is required. Unfortunately, partial bench trails provide a less sustainable tread and are more expensive to construct . It is very difficult to construct the filled portion of the tread with the same degree of compaction as the bench cut section. As a result, the filled section compacts more with trail use and eventually forms a rut on the trail tread that diverts or traps water and increases erosion.
If drainage structures are required along the tread they should be installed after the bench is cut. Refer to Trail Drainage Structures for additional information.
The location where the first cut will be initiated can be identified during trail design or determined on-site by an experienced construction crew leader. The trail bench and back slope are cut "from the top down" . That is, the first cut is made at the top of the back slope (i.e., the edge of the back slope that is furthest from the tread). The back slope is excavated initially, and then the tread is gradually included when the excavation work reaches the level of the finished tread. To cut the bench for the tread, the following steps are repeated in sequence as the excavation work is completed:
The optimal tread material is natural soil mixed with crushed rock . "Road base" gravel ("3/4 minus") is easy to obtain and ideally suited for a firm, stable and sustainable soil tread. Mechanically crushed rock (not river gravel) is best because the pieces have jagged edges that will not shift on each other. The proportion of soil and rock will vary with the desired aesthetics (e.g., a tread that looks more like soil or crushed rock) and the natural conditions. In some cases, substantial amounts of crushed rock will be required. In other areas, the natural soil will contain enough rock particles that additional material will not required. Ensure that at least some rock particles are mixed into the trail tread to enhance the tread durability and sheet flow drainage while keeping the outslope at 8% or less. The construction crew leader should be constantly alert for micro-changes in the soil conditions that were not specified in the construction log.
If the trail tread will be constructed from manufactured products ( Constructed Trail Surfaces ), the materials should be installed according to the manufacturer's instructions. If a natural soil tread is desired , and the naturally occurring soil is not suitable for a sustainable trail tread, it can be improved through the following steps :
After you add new material, the total amount of soil on the tread will be larger. As a result, even after compacting, the trail tread may be higher than the intended tread height. If excess material remains after compaction and shaping of the trail tread, it should be used to repair other sections of the trail or it can be disposed of by spreading and distributing it in the surrounding area. Be careful to not damage the natural drainage patterns or any vegetation when distributing excess material .
Flagstones, wood or pavers can be embedded into the tread to identify points of interest or facilities (e.g., bench, washroom). For people with vision or cognitive limitations and inexperienced trail users, consistent changes in tread texture can be very helpful in signaling facilities and features, such as pathways to washrooms, interpretive features, trail intersections and trailheads. Changes in tread texture that provide information to trail users should be placed across the full width of the tread and should extend for a distance of 0.6 m in the direction of travel. It is important that any changes in the tread surface do not present a tripping hazard.
Proper compaction and shaping of the tread is the key to sustainability . The trail designer will have considered the impact of a trail tread compaction in determining where the tread will be located. Although many people know that soil compaction can have a negative effect on delicate root systems, compaction of the trail tread is critically important . The tread alignment specified in the construction log will be designed to ensure that the vegetation in the surrounding environment will not be adversely impacted by compaction of the trail tread. Compaction of the trail tread allows water to sheet quickly over the trail, protecting and preserving the trail surface. When trail users have a firm and comfortable surface, they will not roam "off the trail" to find a better path (causing more environmental damage in the process).
For optimal sustainability and minimal impact on the surrounding environment, the trail tread should be very firmly compacted so that it has an even and consistent outslope . Shovels or a McLeod can be used to shape and compact the tread. In more developed areas, the tread can be mechanically compacted with rollers or vibrating plates. Make sure that the finished trail tread has a smooth and even surface so that water flows easily in sheets across the trail and puddles or pools of water do not develop.
Do not leave the job of compacting the tread to user traffic .
The worst thing for the sustainability of your tread is to have some areas compacted more solidly than others. Not only will users avoid the softer areas (and therefore magnify the difference in compaction), but the compacted areas will be lower, trapping water on the trail tread. Eventually, the compacted area becomes a rut in the centre of the tread, and a flow of water down the trail soon follows. A properly constructed trail tread should be fully compacted so that even the first trail user does not imprint the tread as they pass.
Outslope refers to the shape or angle of the trail tread so that water on the trail surface naturally drains off of the downhill edge of the tread. It is created by cutting and shaping the trail bench (see Cut the Bench ). Continuous tread outslope allows water to flow across a trail at any point, avoiding the erosive force that occurs when water is concentrated at a selected point. Use of continuous outslope along the full length of the trail tread is the preferred method for maintaining the natural drainage patterns in the trail environment.
The amount of outslope required will depend on the grade of the trail and the type of tread material . As the linear grade of the trail increases, the outslope must also increase to prevent water from being directed down the trail. In general, paved treads will require 3% outslope or less on a level grade. Hardened treads with limited grade are usually sustainable with 5% outslope. Natural surface trails will require 5% to 8% outslope when the linear grade is relatively level.
The trail tread should always be constructed according to the outslope specified in the construction log. Construction crews should measure the outslope, using a digital level or clinometer (see Appendix F), throughout the tread surface to ensure that "as built" is the same as "as designed". The trail designer will have carefully considered the conflicting needs for sustainability and universal design in determining the tread material used and the outslope required.
The need for outslope of the trail tread to ensure proper drainage creates the only significant conflict between sustainable and universal design principles. As the amount of outslope increases, many users will find the trail increasingly difficult. Trail users "on wheels", such as children riding bikes, stroller, in-line skaters or people using wheelchairs, will tend to drift to the downhill side of the trail. People who are obese and those who use walking sticks, canes and crutches also find outsloped surfaces more difficult. Cross-country ski poles that are adjustable in length are another clear indicator of how many trail users are uncomfortable if the outslope is too severe. The outslope specified in the construction log will have been determined by the trail designer through the careful consideration of the needs of the environment and trail users. Construction crews must be careful to construct the tread to the specifications provided . Increasing or decreasing the outslope by even one or two degrees can have a very negative impact on goals for sustainable and universal design.
To measure the outslope of the trail tread, place a 2" x 4" or similar object, one metre (3.3 feet) in length, across the tread and perpendicular to the direction of travel. Put a level on the wood and then lift the downhill end of the wood until the whole piece is level. Measure the distance from the trail tread to the bottom of the piece of wood. If a one metre (3.3 foot) object is used, the height of the object above the ground (in centimetres) will be equal to the percent outslope (i.e., a height of 5 cm is equal to 5% outslope). Remember, the outslope of a trail tread must always be measured after surface material is fully installed and compacted . Depending on the degree of tread surface compaction during construction and the amount of on-going trail use, the outslope may need to be re-established at regular intervals in order to prevent a berm from developing on the downhill side of the tread. Refer to Restoring the Tread Outslope in "Best Practices for Trail Maintenance" for information on restoring tread outslope.
The final step in tread construction is to restore the trail environment so that it closely matches the "pre-construction" state. This is where you get to re-use the vegetation, organic material (e.g., duff) and topsoil that was carefully removed and stored at the beginning of your work. A thin layer of duff (e.g., 1 cm or 0.4 inches) on top of the finished trail tread will not only improve the aesthetics of the trail, but it will cushion user traffic, help to retain soil moisture and protect the underlying soil from rainfall impacts. The construction work is incomplete until all "scars" from the work have been removed from the trail environment. Trail users should not be able to tell that work was recently done on the trail.
Vegetation should be restored to the back slope to the greatest extent possible. If sufficient material was not preserved during excavation, try to selectively transplant material from small patches near by. Quickly re-establishing the cover of vegetation will help to ensure that the back slope remains stable and significantly improves the aesthetics of the trail environment.
Restoration of the trail environment also extends to the removal or distribution of any natural materials that cannot be re-used. Wherever possible, the material excavated during construction of the bench should be preserved and re-used for repairs at other locations (e.g., to fill a swale on the tread). If materials cannot be re-used, they should be broadcast away from downhill edge . Be sure to move the material several metres away from the edge of the tread. Materials left near the end of the tread often form a berm that prevents water from draining naturally downhill but rather forces it down the trail tread. Leaves and branches removed originally from the tread can be used to cover the broadcast soil and re-establish a more natural aesthetic.
The final step in restoring the environment is to remove the tread location markers, pin flags and flagging tape that you originally installed. If the trail environment is properly restored, before you leave the trail will "look like it's been there forever".
It is often best to build a hardened trail tread in areas where poor soil conditions cannot be avoided or modified. It may be necessary to use a constructed trail surface in areas where the environment is particularly sensitive or for trails that will have a high volume of users.
There are four kinds of constructed trail surfaces :
In many locations you will also see trails constructed with pieces of material. Typically, the "pieces" are either wood chips or shredded rubber. The use of pieced materials on trails is not recommended . These materials have been developed primarily for playground surfaces because when they are placed on top of a compacted natural surface they provide additional resilience (i.e., cushioning). Wood chips are also used to raise the height of the trail tread on wet or muddy sections. People responsible for maintaining these trails will tell you that these types of materials are rarely sustainable over time . The pieces quickly "migrate" off of the trail tread, or accumulate at the sides of the tread if a border is constructed to contain the material. In addition, the surfaces that they create are often soft or unstable which means they require a lot more energy to walk on.
Recent research [68] has demonstrated that it is possible to stabilize these materials by adding binding or stabilization materials. Some manufacturers also produce wood chip products that come "ready made" with their own stabilization material (e.g., engineered wood fibre). However, if a hardened tread is going to be constructed, the sustainability and aesthetics of the finished tread are usually much better if the stabilization products are mixed with the natural soil .
Solid materials used for trail treads include wood (wood planks or decks), plastic (artificial "wood"), rubber (mats), rock (rip rap [69]), stone (flag stone), brick or concrete pavers or slabs, or porous pavement panels . Most of these materials are best used for highly developed, heavily used trails in urban settings. However, lumber and rock can be used in a wide variety of urban and rural trail environments where the natural soil does not make a suitable tread. Solid materials work best in areas where the natural soils are saturated with water or there are ephemeral (i.e., intermittent) springs or water flows. Lumber and plastic plank treads are constructed using the techniques described in Tread Structures Above the Surrounding Terrain .
Each specific trail situation requires a site appropriate choice of material and installation method . The installation procedures for similar products from different manufactures may be very different. Ensure that the people installing the surface material accurately understand the specific installation procedures for the product being used. Both the product and the installation method must be suitable for the trail type and environment. Therefore, decisions regarding tread surfaces should be made during the trail planning stages and the installation procedures detailed in the construction log.
To build a trail tread using solid materials, initially the Prepare the Ground and Cut the Bench steps are completed as previously described. The solid materials are then installed according to the manufacturer's instructions. In general, the steps will be:
Mechanically crushed rock is often used to provide a firm and stable trail tread. Many trail users feel that crushed aggregate trails are more aesthetically pleasing than trails using solid materials. In southern Ontario, the use of crushed limestone is particularly common. If crushed aggregates are used, they should be "3/4 minus" (pieces 2 cm (0.8 inches) or smaller) and contain a range of sieve sizes, with about 25% of the content being crushed fines. The crushed aggregate should contain fractured rock with irregular edges so that it compacts solidly. The crushed aggregate should also be free of vegetative material to ensure that rot of organic material over time does not result in soft spots or uneven surfaces. It is critically important that crushed aggregate surfaces be mechanically compacted during tread construction . In the past, the aggregate was often spread on the trail without compaction. While eventually the tread will compact with use (over 3 to 5 years), the years of initial use will be very difficult for many trail users. In addition, outslope of the tread will be inconsistent and the migration of the non-compacted materials into the surrounding environment will have a substantial negative impact on adjacent vegetation.
To construct a tread using crushed aggregate:
Binding or stabilization materials include bonding agents, landscape fabrics and cellular containment materials . Binding agents are typically made from natural materials, such as tree sap or seed hulls. They create a solid and unified surface when mixed with natural soil or crushed aggregate [70]. Binding agents should be carefully selected, based on the climate and other characteristics of the trail environment, because most will work best under particular conditions. Landscape fabrics (e.g., filter fabric) and cellular containment materials (e.g., solgrid, geoweb) are made from environmentally inert substances. They create a semi-rigid structure that prevents soil particles or pieced materials from shifting due to trail use.
It is critically important that the manufacturer's instructions be followed precisely when using a binding agent to create a trail tread . Each product will have specific instructions. Failure to follow the product instructions often results in a tread surface that is difficult or impossible to use without extensive re-construction and maintenance.
While the installation procedures for each binding agent will differ, in general, the following steps will be needed:
The use of steps and ladders are to be avoided and used only as a last alternative on trails . Steps and ladders are costly, and require a great deal of effort, both during original construction and in on-going maintenance. Steps and ladders also make trail use very difficult for many trail users. "Hikers, especially backpackers, generally don't like steps and will walk alongside them if there is any opportunity. [71]" Steps can be significant barriers or hazards for other trail users, such as cyclists, cross-country skiers, young children and people with limited mobility. Steps should only be considered when all other options are not suitable [73].
Despite all the limitations, there are some trails that will require steps or ladders as part of the trail tread. For example, the trails that lead to the many fire towers in Ontario would be pointless if a ladder to climb the tower and see the view was not available. Steps and ladders may be considered in very steep terrain, where other trail layouts are not possible or would not adequately protect the natural environment . In these situations, steps can help to retain soil and stabilize the slope, which makes them less damaging to the environment than having users "slip sliding" as they climb or going off of the trail tread. Steps also provide trail users with relatively "level ground" to stand on, which can be a welcome relief from the constant effort of balancing and stabilizing oneself on very steep terrain.
When it is necessary to install steps on a trail, the riser height of each step should be as consistent as possible. Handrails should be provided for all flights of stairs, in accordance with local safety codes. A detectable warning surface must be installed at the top of the steps to warn trail users with visual impairments and those who may not be paying attention (i.e., children). The detectable warning surface should be a different texture than the trail tread and should extend across the full width of the tread and for a distance of 0.9 m in the direction of travel. That is, the trail user moving towards the stairs would encounter the start of the detectable warning surface 0.9 m before he/she arrived at the top of the steps. A detectable warning surface is not required on the downhill side of the steps.
When steps must be installed on a trail, consider the following adaptations to make the trail more accessible:
Steps provide a way to climb or descend a steep slope and help to protect the local environment from erosion, but the safety of the trail user must be the prime consideration. Stairs in houses and buildings are typically 17.5 cm (7 inches) high with a 32.5 cm (13 inches) run (the distance from the front of one step to the back of the next step). On trails, the steps should be deeper (run of 60 cm (2 feet) or more), so that trail users can place their entire foot on the step for support. Wide and deep steps also appear less steep and intimidating to users. Each step should be as wide as the location permits , and steps should never be narrower than the rest of the trail tread. Steps on trails should have riser heights of 15 cm (6 inches) wherever possible, with maximum riser heights of 20 cm (about 8 inches) used only when necessary. Remember as riser height increases, many trail users, including children, elderly walkers, hikers with heavy packs and people with disabilities, find it increasingly difficult to negotiate steps safely. High riser heights are also difficult for descending hikers and may be dangerous for people who are tired (e.g., the end of a long hike).
Steps should follow the contour of the land to minimize site disturbance. The location, spacing, number and rise of the steps will be determined during trail design, based on the existing terrain and type of trail user, and specified in the construction log. Key points to remember when building steps are:
Steps on stringers are more difficult and expensive to construct and maintain . However, they are the only option for areas, such as exposed bedrock, where surface conditions make it too difficult (or ill-advised) to set steps into the ground. Steps on stringers may also be considered for trails in steep terrain with very high levels of use in order to minimize soil compaction and user impacts. Aligning and anchoring the vertical support posts required for these types of steps makes it less likely that stringer steps will be constructed using only hand tools . Where anchoring the steps is difficult (e.g., connecting to granite) or requires mechanized equipment, professional assistance should be obtained.
To construct steps on stringers:
Rock steps last longer and trail users find them more natural looking, particularly if they are placed carefully. However, building rock steps requires more skill and experience to ensure that the finished steps will be stable and safe.
Rock steps can be built in two basic designs:
To construct rock steps:
Wood steps are simple to build and are less expensive than steps supported by stringers. Wood steps can be made from either timber or logs. Timber steps are generally easier to build , with 4 x 4 or 6 x 6 "railway ties" being particularly popular. Remember, if the timber has been pressured treated, make sure that Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA) has not be used as a wood preservative.
If logs are used, the logs should be cut in half lengthwise, or shaved with a chain saw, to ensure that the top of each step is flat . Rounded logs should not be used for steps because they are unsafe for many trail users. Try to use the largest diameter log possible so that trail users have a relatively large step surface.
To construct log or timber steps:
As previously indicated, ladders should be used only when absolutely necessary . Ladders will limit use of the trail to only a small, agile proportion of hikers. Ladders also entail a high degree of maintenance to ensure they remain safe. Liability warning labels found on ladders sold for household use make it very clear that ladders on trails are a significant liability risk. Consider installing a ladder on a trail only when all other options for re-routing the trail have been considered and the prevailing grade of the terrain is more than 100% (i.e., more than 10 cm (4 inches) rise for every 10 cm (4 inches) of horizontal distance). If a ladder must be installed on a trail, design it so that it provides comfortable hand holds for each rung. This will allow more users to stabilize themselves, and some individuals may "climb" the ladder with minimal or no use of their legs.
It is important that trail users have access to information regarding the trails that they wish to use. Trail information can be provided in a wide variety of formats. Trailhead signs, brochures, web sites guidebooks, on-trail signs and blazes are just a few examples of the ways in which trail users can obtain information. Even with good trail guides available, trail signage is indispensable .
With the provision of trail signs, comes a responsibility for long-term management. Land managers should ensure that trail signs are maintained in good order and that trails continue to be suitable for roadway and trail signage. In addition, all trails should have a detailed, written sign plan prepared and approved by the club, agency, or organization that is responsible for the trail. The sign plan should provide specific and detailed information about the fabrication and installation of signs on the trail. It should also ensure that signs do not "overwhelm" the trail, either in complexity or number.
Care is needed to ensure that trail signs are harmonious with the nature of a trail environment. Although no one wants "sign pollution" (when there are so many signs that you can hardly notice the environment), adequate signs and quality maps are what enable trail users to stay on a trail . If trail users are uncertain about trail location or direction, they may create new trails that damage the environment and become maintenance and rehabilitation headaches.
Signs consist of three main components:
The sign face is the surface on which the sign information is found . Effective sign faces are designed to meet the specific needs of permitted trail users . They must be deliberately planned to serve the needs of all visitors. A sign on a bicycle route or downhill ski trail may only have a number, name or a symbol, because it must communicate essential information in a glance. As the visitor's pace slows, signs can become more complex (if desired) and subtle.
On trails, the sign face is typically made from a sheet of wood, metal or hard plastic. Regardless of the material used, the sign face must be resistant to the damaging effects of weather (e.g., wind, rain, ice, snow) and ultra-violet radiation . A quality sign should stand up to vandalism, rain, sun, snow and ice for at least 10 years. Funding permitting, trail managers should opt for durable, high quality signs, especially in the case of interpretive or trail head signs. If lower quality signs must be used because of funding limitations, regular inspections will be required to ensure that the information on the signs remains clearly visible (e.g., not faded, peeling or with damage from insects or mildew under the waterproof layer).
Blazes are another type of sign face that is commonly used on trails in Ontario. Paint blazes are typically used because they are low cost, easy to install and maintain, with little to no environmental damage. Latex rather than oil-based paint is recommended. Semi-gloss paint is durable and creates less glare than high gloss paints.
Trail signs must convey information in a way that all potential trail users can easily understand . This is true for all signs, regardless of the purpose, size or type of construction. To enhance the ability of a trail sign to accurately convey the intended information to all trail users, construct the sign face using the following guidelines:
From entrance signs to interpretive signs, each type should serve a specific purpose. The construction log will provide specific details on the sign face to be constructed. The key points for sign faces found at the trailhead or on the trail are summarized below. If the construction log differs from this summary, the details in the construction log take precedence because the trail designer will have considered a wide variety of factors in order to determine the most appropriate sign face.
The sign panel can be constructed from a wide variety of materials, such as metal, fibreglass, wood, concrete, and plastic. The trail designer will have considered durability (long-term maintenance requirements and vandalism risk), aesthetics and budget when selecting the sign panel material. Sign panels that use a 5 to 3 or 5 to 4 ratio for their dimensions are more visually appealing than square panels. Avoid using inexpensive materials in large rectangles, such as a 4 ft by 8 ft sheet of plywood, as it will give the trail a "billboard appearance" [76].
Supports for a sign can be made from lumber, logs or metal. Large boulders can also be used as sign supports. The trail designer will have chosen the support colours and materials to complement the site. Cedar posts are recommended if available. To make a natural post, use a rot-resistant tree such as cedar, locust or hemlock. Peel the bark off to discourage insects and prevent moisture retention. If you can't get a natural post, use a squared post from a lumberyard. Living trees should not be used as sign supports.
If pressure treated lumber is to be used, be certain that the preservative does not contain arsenic. Coat the pressure treated lumber with an oil based stain to reduce the potential that chemicals from the wood will leach into the soil. Use extra precautions to minimize skin contact with chemicals and always wear a dust mask when cutting pressure treated lumber .
Exact post installation specifications vary depending upon the type of sign, location and message. For example, regulatory signs need to comply with provincial and municipal regulations. If signs need to be placed on highways, such as a trail crossing warning to motorists, a series of guidelines must be respected. It is important to consult with the local road authorities and/or the Ontario Ministry of Transportation regarding placement of signs on or near roads and highways . Because of the equipment involved, very large signs require professional installation.
In general, when installing supports for a sign:
If concrete will be poured to stabilize the post, it will be necessary to brace the post firmly in the proper position until the concrete has completely cured. In areas where bedrock is in close proximity to the surface, pinning may be required. If a metal post is used, it should be galvanized steel (38 x 38 mm or 1.5 x 1.5 inches) and the hardware should be 9 mm (0.4 inch) or 12 mm (0.5 inch) galvanized or cadmium-plated bolts (carriage bolts) and nuts with washers. Another choice is to anchor the post with pieces of rebar or wood inside stone cairns [77].
In some trail environments, it may be appropriate to attach the sign panel to a tree. Great care should be taken if this approach is selected to ensure that the selected tree will not be damaged by the sign. Signs should not be attached to fine tree specimens. To mount a sign on a living tree:
The following hints can be helpful in increasing the likelihood that a sign and signpost will remain legible and in place for an extended period of time.
Use a semi-gloss, latex paint for blazes on trees or fence and blaze posts. The blaze shape and colour will be specified by the trail designer according to the trail club's sign plan. Blazes should be at least 5 cm (2 inches) wide and 15 cm (6 inches) high . After the blaze is painted, a 2 cm (0.8 inches) border on all sides of the blaze should be visible. The border can be created by the tree, post or panel that provides the surface for the paint blaze if it is a suitably contrasting colour. Otherwise, the border can be painted around the blaze with a high contrast colour.
Blazes should be painted 1.5 metres (5 feet) above the trail tread , or in a location that is easily visible to people who are either standing or seated. Higher mounting locations should be used on winter trails, the height being determined by the typical snow depth. Blazes should not be mounted on rocks or boulders, because they will have limited visibility and will be more easily covered by snow or dirt.
Trail barriers are installed to prevent unauthorized use of the trail and to prevent trail users from accessing adjacent properties and fragile or hazardous areas. For example, some trails install barriers to keep out motorized users, horse riders, or bicycles. On other trails, the barriers keep livestock in their pastures and off of the trail or adjacent roads. The choice of trail barrier must be a balance between the prevention of unauthorized activity, enabling permitted trail users and the aesthetics of the trail environment .
Barriers can be constructed of a variety of materials including rock, timber or steel. Care must be taken to ensure that all barriers comply with all safety requirements while still being able to blend into the natural landscape. Barriers, whether fences, railings, bollards or plantings, should extend at least 1.0 metre on either side of the trail bed. This will discourage trail users from going off the trail tread to get around the barrier.
Whenever barriers are installed on a trail, care must be taken to ensure that the barrier design does not limit use of the trail by permitted users . For example, people pushing strollers or using wheelchairs should have access to trails that allow people travelling on foot, even when barriers are installed to prevent motorized vehicles from accessing the trail. Carefully consider the need for, and design of, trail barriers. In many cases, such as restrictions on cyclists, the intent of the barrier cannot reasonably be achieved. An ineffective barrier may result in more environmental damage than no barrier at all , because it will encourage "determined" individuals to go off the trail tread to get around the "barrier". Before erecting a trail barrier, consider whether the desired restriction could be achieved through other means, such as signage and user education.
Fences and railings include all barriers that restrict the movement of people or animals . They are installed primarily for the protection of trail users or sensitive environments. Fences separate trail users from hazards such as traffic lanes, bodies of water, drops offs, railways and steep slopes. In southern Ontario, fences built to corral livestock are also frequently encountered on trails. Fences and railings can also contribute to the aesthetics of the trail , by focusing the user's attention and providing a visual connection between the trail and surrounding environment. Fencing may also be installed to delineate property boundaries, for privacy, or to control user circulation on trails.
Railings and fences that protect trail users from a dangerous situation should be constructed in accordance with local building codes . Log, timber or stone construction is usually best in rural areas and natural environments. In urban, heavy use areas, metal or a combination of wood, metal, and stone may be appropriate. The security factor of a fence should be proportional to the amount of hazard . A chain-link or barbed wire fence is required for extreme hazards, even in a wilderness environment. If trail users are allowed to pass through the fence, an opening in the fence that can be safely used by all permitted trail users must be constructed .
Railings are required in all areas, such as many scenic lookouts, where trail users are elevated more than 60 cm (2 feet) above the surrounding terrain [81]. Be sure to check safety codes and legal requirements specific to the trail location for additional restrictions or requirements related to safety railings. The use of native logs for railings provides a rustic appearance that is appropriate for many natural and forested settings. Synthetic fasteners , used to secure the logs into position, should not be immediately obvious to people on the trail. This is both an aesthetic issue and a maintenance issue. Trail users should not feel like they are "jailed" on the trail. However, it is equally important to "disguise" the methods used to construct a fence so that people, particularly curious young children, cannot easily bypass or dismantle the fence.
The safety and effectiveness of fences and railings is determined by the security of the anchor posts and the design of the connecting material. Anchor posts must be constructed and installed to withstand the expected natural and human forces . This means more than just keeping the posts upright when people hang on or lean on the fence or railing. Anchor posts must hold firm even if a group of people were to apply force or if a large animal pushed against one.
The connecting material between anchor posts must be selected based on the purpose of the fence or railing . There are an infinite number of styles that can be used for the connecting material. The limits relate only to creativity and availability of materials. It is recommended that the connecting material blend with the aesthetics of the trail environment. It is critically important that the choice of connecting material consider the needs of all trail users , including young children, people of short stature (less than 1.2 metres (4 feet) in height) and people who use wheelchairs or other types of mobility devices (e.g., recumbent bicycles). These individuals will see things from a very different perspective than a standing adult, so make sure that you consider their safety and the view from their vantage point.
Some examples of the connecting materials that can be used for fences and railings include:
The exact procedures for constructing a fence or railing are determined by the materials used and the intended function. In general, two steps are required:
Bollards are solid obstacles installed on a trail tread to control the movement of people and/or vehicles on the trail. They can be made of lumber, log, metal or stone. In urban settings, bollards are typically purchased and installed according to the manufacturer's instructions. In more remote areas, bollards can be constructed using timber, logs or large boulders.
Bollards can either be permanent or removable , depending on the trail requirements. Removable bollards are typically used to prevent unauthorized cars and trucks from accessing the trail. These types of bollards are designed to be removed, usually by unlocking them, when trail access is required for service or emergency vehicles.
Bollards should always be installed in odd numbers . For example, put one bollard in the centre of the tread or place three bollards at intervals across the tread. Installing an even number of bollards can encourage collisions between trail users because users coming from both directions will naturally head toward the central open space. If more than one bollard is used, the space between must be at least 1 metre . Bollards spaced less than 1 metre (3.3 feet) apart can be a hazard for cyclists and in-line skaters and may block trail access by people who use wheelchairs or other mobility devices.
Bollards must be highly visible, even at night . Trail users must be able to detect the bollard far enough in advance to avoid it. As the speed of travel increases for trail users (e.g., bicyclists compared to hikers), the sight lines to the bollard and the spacing between the bollards should increase. Put reflectors onto the bollard to enhance visibility. Bollards should generally be at least 0.7 metres (2.3 feet) high. On trails where cyclists are permitted, the bollards should be a minimum height of 1.2 metres (4 feet).
Bollards should be set into or onto solid ground . If large boulders are used, the bollard should be set onto compacted mineral soil (see Compact and Shape the Tread ). If possible, excavate the compacted soil to match the shape of the bottom of the boulder. Bury at least 1/3 of the height of the boulder below the adjacent ground surface. This will increase the stability of the boulder and make it more difficult to re-position.
Post bollards (typically timber, log or metal posts) should be installed as deeply as possible. Having at least 1 metre (3.3 feet) of the bollard below grade will prevent frost from shifting or loosening the bollard. In situations where it is not possible to bury a post bollard, such as on exposed bedrock, more advanced techniques will be required and professional assistance should be obtained. Bollards
To install a post bollard :
Any time that people are allowed to pass through a fence or railing, an appropriate "opening" must be installed. In many situations, a simple opening in the fence may be appropriate . In other situations, a cattle guard may be required within the opening to ensure that livestock cannot pass through. In still other situations it may be appropriate to install some type of gate, although these must be carefully designed to ensure that they can be operated by all trail users and they will continue to function properly in all seasons.
The design and construction of any fence opening must be done in collaboration with the landowner . It must be based on a clear understanding of all uses for adjacent lands and the purpose of the fence (e.g., crops, livestock, barrier to motor vehicles). Where there are concerns about the movement of animals (either wild or livestock), the fence opening must also be approved by the Ministry of Natural Resources and/or the owner of the livestock. The construction of fence openings in the vicinity of livestock must be done with particular care because the time and cost of retrieving uncontrolled animals can be substantial.
For people travelling on foot, the opening in the fence should be at least 1 metre (3.3 feet) in width . The size and configuration of the opening can vary, depending on the permitted and prohibited uses of the trail. The width of the opening can be reduced to 0.8 metres (2.75 feet) if necessary to prevent large users (e.g., ATV, horse) from accessing the trail.
Sometimes a combination of openings is required in order to allow all trail users to pass through the fence and prevent access by prohibited users or animals. If the fence opening will be less than 0.8 metres (2.75 feet) in width, an alternate opening is required so that people who use mobility devices (e.g., wheelchairs) will continue to have access to the trail. The combination of fence opening designs that can be used is limited only by the creativity of the designer.
Research is currently being funded by the US Department of Agriculture to evaluate the effectiveness of a variety of fence opening designs [82]. When designing and constructing fence openings, it is essential that the needs of the landowner and all permitted trail users be considered at all times. Consult with your local Conservation Authority to ensure that plans for fence openings will not result in negative impacts on the local plant and animal communities. The following are just a few examples of the type of opening designs and technologies that are being used on trails to limit access by prohibited trail users:
In some trail environments, cameras triggered by motion or exhaust sensors are being used to identify and prohibited users who enter a trail environment. Although they do not prevent physical access to the trail, camera systems can be very inconspicuous (maintaining the aesthetics of the trail environment) and they effectively deter repeat offences as long as the vehicle has a visible license plate for identification of the owner.
Unfortunately, none of the fence opening designs developed to date will allow access by all users travelling on foot, including people who use mobility devices, but prevent bicycles from being brought onto the trail. Many bicycles have quick release wheels (so that the front wheel can be removed when locking the bike in a public place) which means that the dimensions of the bicycle can easily be made very small. The light weight of most bicycles, even those for mountain bicycling, also means that bicycles can easily be lifted over fences or gates.
Lockable gates that limit use of the trail by permitted trail users should not be installed on trails. Lockable gates are suitable for installation across service and emergency vehicle access routes, as long as all permitted trail users can access the trail without opening the lock. It is inappropriate to require some trail users , such as people who use wheelchairs, to arrange in advance to obtain a key or lock combination, when other trail users on foot have unlimited access to a trail .
If at all possible, post information about fence openings, gates or potential problems with trail access on the trail web site and at key access points or trailhead locations.
The most effective method for preventing the movement of animals, including livestock, through a trail fence opening is the installation of a ground-level cattle guard (often referred to as a "Texas Gate"). A cattle guard is essentially a grate that is placed over an excavated pit. Livestock will not cross the grate because they can see it is not a solid surface. For this reason, cattle guards are not appropriate on trails that permit horses or other pack stock.
The design of the grate must be carefully developed to ensure that it provides safe and secure access for all permitted trail users. Traditionally, these grates were installed on farm roads and driveways. As a result, the design of many commercially available cattle guards are not appropriate for trails where people will be travelling on foot. While a car or truck can easily drive across the round metal cylinders often used to create the grate surface, many trail users will find this type of crossing hazardous. To ensure that a trail can be safely used by all trail users, including children, older adults, people with disabilities, and individuals who are inexperienced or unfit, the grate should be constructed with solid walking surfaces across it's full length. Two solid walking surfaces should be applied on top of the grate or integrated into its design. Each solid walking surface must be 0.3 to 0.4 metres (12 to 16 inches) in width and the space between the two walking surfaces should be no more than 20 cm (8 inches). The walking surface should be too narrow for livestock but enable permitted trail users to cross the grate on a solid surface.
Self-closing gates can also be used to prevent the movement of livestock through a fence opening. If a gate is installed on a trail, the design and operation must carefully consider the abilities or all trail users. To be suitable for use on a trail, self-closing gates should be simple and intuitive . A maximum of 3 kg of force should be required to move the gate and the latch mechanism should be suitable for opening with a closed fist . The top of the latch mechanism should be mounted 1 metre above the ground , or no more than 1.2 metres (4 feet) above ground in areas with both summer and winter use. Gates that require more than 3 kg of force to open may inadvertently trap weaker or less fit trail users. People with limited hand function and winter trail users wearing thick gloves will think you're wonderful when they can operate the gate with a closed fist.
The methods used to construct and install a fence opening for a trail will vary tremendously depending on the type of opening, the intended function of the fence, and the terrain in which it will be located. The construction of the opening will be similar to the construction of the fence itself. There are typically three main steps.
A stile consists of, usually two, linked staircases. They allow someone walking on a trail to climb up and over a fence. Stiles are often used on farms to provide access to fields that contain livestock. However, stiles pose a significant safety hazard for many trail users and are not recommended for use on trail.
Many landowners believe that stiles are the only effective way to allow trail users to pass through a fence without creating an opportunity for livestock to roam freely. Typically, their primary concern is that gates can be left open, which would allow their livestock to escape. They may also be concerned that a gate would allow access to their property by prohibited users (e.g., motorized vehicles).
If a land owner indicates that only a stile is acceptable and no other type of fence opening will be allowed, the impact of stiles in terms of discrimination against certain trail users (e.g., children, older adults, people with disabilities, people who are less fit or less experienced) and the limitations of stiles related to user safety should be clearly explained. In most cases, landowners will be willing to consider an alternative fence opening design, instead of a stile, once the reasons for the recommendation are clearly understood. If the landowner adamantly refuses to consider anything other than a stile, the trail should be re-routed as necessary. If stiles are already installed on a trail that is newly acquired, a plan should be developed to replace the stiles with appropriate fence openings or to re-align the trail corridor.
Trail facilities encompass a wide variety of built structures. Some, like access to drinking water or emergency shelter, are related to health and safety. Other facilities, such as benches or picnic tables, can be provided for the enjoyment of trail users. Still others, such as toilets or trash disposal, are primarily intended for protection of the environment . Full compliance with these best practices does not require the construction of facilities on a trail or at a trailhead. The decision to construct facilities, and the type of facilities to construct, should be determined by the trail managing agency based on the need for environmental protection and the intended trail experience . Typically, facilities constructed on urban or highly developed trails will be more substantial and more numerous than facilities provided in remote areas or on seldom-used trails. However, trails that receive a very high level of use should have all of the facilities required to manage user impacts on the environment , even if the trail is located in a rural or wilderness area.
Although the construction of facilities is not required on a trail, unless specified by the land owner or local managing agency, if facilities are constructed they must be accessible to all permitted trail users , including people with disabilities. Never fall into the trap of assuming "someone in a wheelchair will never come here" or that everyone on skis or on horseback will be able to walk when they dismount. Facility construction techniques must always comply with local building codes and safety and accessibility regulations . In general, construction techniques used to create accessible facilities are the same as those used for all facilities. The primary difference is in design rather than construction. Information about the design of sustainable and accessible facilities is widely available through published resources such as:
Cole, D.N. (1990). Ecological impacts of wilderness recreation and their management . In J.C. Hendee, G.H. Stankey, and R.C. Lucas, Wilderness Management (2nd ed.), North American Press, Golden, CO. pp. 425-466.
Bruce Trail Association. (March 2005) How to cut tall grass. Treadway , pp 11.
Timber Treatment Technologies. TimberSIL: Locked in for life . [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from www.timbersil.com
Meyer, K.G. (2002). Managing Degraded Off-Highway Vehile Trails in Wet, Unstable, and Sensitive Environments . Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture and Federal Highway Administration. Monlux, S. and Vachowski, B. (2000). Geosynthetics for Trails in Wet Areas. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture and Federal Highway Administration.
The Bruce Trail Association. (2001) Guide for Trail Workers . 3 rd Edition. Hamilton: Author.
Tensar netting is a black plastic square mesh used extensively in New Zealand (www.maccaferri.co.nz).
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing, Building and Development Branch. (2005). Ontario Building Code 1997. July 1, 2005 update.
Floating Trail Bridges and Docks. U.S. Forest Service. FHWA Publication #0023-2838-MTDC.
US Department of the Interior. (2004). Logical Lasting Launches: Design Guidane for Canoe and Kayak Launches . Washington, DC: National Park Service Rivers, Trails and Conservation Assistance Program.
Meyer, K.G. (2002). Managing Degraded Off-Highway Vehile Trails in Wet, Unstable, and Sensitive Environments . Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture and Federal Highway Administration. Monlux, S. and Vachowski, B. (2000). Geosynthetics for Trails in Wet Areas . Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture and Federal Highway Administration.
Robert T. Steinholtz. Wetland Trail Design and Construction . [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/fspubs/00232839/toc.htm
The angle of repose is the angle at which the natural soil, when it is not compacted, is stable.
Bergmann, R. (2000). Soil Stabilizers on Universally Accessible Trails . Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture and Federal Highway Administration.
Rip rap is constructed from large rocks (one cubic foot installed below trail grade so the surface of the rock is at grade). The rocks are installed tightly together to create a surface similar to cobblestone. The Incas used this technique over one thousand years ago to build trails that are still in use.
Many companies promote the use of binding and stabilization materials with wood chips or shredded rubber. Stabilization of these materials improves the sustainability of the constructed tread, but information on these uses is not provided because they create a relatively soft surface that many people find difficult to cross. Aesthetically, the stabilization of the natural soil or crushed aggregate is preferred.
US Department of Agriculture Forest Service. (2000). Trail Construction and Maintenance Notebook: Special Structures: Steps . Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation. [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/fspubs/00232839/page10a.htm#steps
The Bruce Trail Association. (2001) Guide for Trail Workers . 3 rd Edition. Hamilton: Author.
Contrast = [ (B1 – B2) ÷ B1) × 100 ] (Canadian National Institute for the Blind. (1998) Clearing Our Path . Toronto: Author.
The Bruce Trail Association. (2001) Guide for Trail Workers . 3 rd Edition. Hamilton: Author.
Ontario Ministry of Transportation. (1985). Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices . Toronto: Queen's Printer.
Trapp, S., Gross, M., and Zimmerman, R. (1991). Signs, Trails, and Wayside Exhibits: Connecting People and Places . Stevens Point, WI: University of wisconsin Stevens Point, pp. 18.
Demrow, C. and Salisbury, D. (1998). The Complete Guide to Trail Building and Maintenance . 3 rd edition. Boston: Appalachian Mountain Club, pp. 91-92.
The Bruce Trail Association. (2001) Guide for Trail Workers . 3 rd Edition. Hamilton: Author.
The Bruce Trail Association. (2001) Guide for Trail Workers . 3 rd Edition. Hamilton: Author.
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing, Building and Development Branch. (2005). Ontario Building Code 1997. July 1, 2005 update.
Recreation Trail Vehicle Barrier: Providing Access to Personal Mobility Devices . Contact Beneficial Designs, Inc. (www.beneficialdesigns.com) for specific information about this research project.
Scottish Natural Heritage. Countryside Access Design Guide . [On-line] Retrieved 31 July 2006 from:
http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/accessguide/gates.asp