Ontario's Best Trails

Guidelines and Best Practices for the Design, Construction and Maintenance of Sustainable Trails for All Ontarians - Trails for All Ontarians Collaborative 2006

Back to the Table of Contents | Prev: Chapter 6 | Next: Appendix A

Chapter 7: Best Practices for Trail Maintenance

Trail maintenance. It's an idea that makes some people cringe while others rub their hands in anticipation. But what is "maintenance"? Trail maintenance includes a wide variety of activities that return the trail tread and environment to its original or intended condition . Typically, trail maintenance activities include restoration of the trail tread (filling eroded sections, restoring outslope), removal of debris (branches, garbage), repair of facilities (replacement of bridge or boardwalk decking, benches, picnic tables) and the control of vegetation (brushing, clearing, removal of dead limbs). Maintenance activities are work that is required on an on-going basis . In contrast, restoration or re-construction work typically includes activities such as the re-alignment or re-routing of sections of trail or the upgrading of the trail and/or facilities to higher standards (e.g., widening and redesigning a hiking trail so that it is also suitable for cross-country skiing). The information in this section focuses on trail maintenance activities. Refer to Guidelines for Trail Construction for additional information about the techniques and procedures recommended for trail re-construction. Of course, it goes without saying that the safety of trail workers and trail users must be a primary concern for all maintenance activities. Refer to Safety and Best Practices for Trails and Appendix E: Trail Safety for more detailed information about trail safety issues.

Regardless of your personal thoughts about trail maintenance , it is an absolutely essential component for every trail . Certain features, such as wetlands, river banks or waterfalls, are often the reason that trails are developed but these features are also very susceptible to destruction or damage from inappropriate trail construction or use. Even after the trail has been constructed, it will be necessary to monitor the trail environment to identify negative impacts that may occur from inappropriate trail use or changes to the trail conditions. Examples of potential negative impacts include damage to existing soils and geological features (e.g., from compaction or erosion when trail users go off of the trail tread or water accumulates and flows on the trail tread), the impact of trail use at different times of the year (e.g., use during or just after Spring thaw when the trail is officially closed), or the types of trail activity (e.g., horses have a greater impact than hikers). Remember, if the trail damages the natural environment the effect may be to destroy the very reasons that originally made the area attractive for trail development.

Perhaps the most important concept in trail maintenance is the saying "A stitch in time saves nine". Detect and fix problems while they're small . Nearly every major problem on a trail was, at one time, a small problem that went uncorrected.

Unfortunately, the scarce resources available to support trail construction are even more difficult to acquire for on-going maintenance. As a result, virtually all trails have volunteers involved in some aspect of their trail maintenance activities . The purpose of this chapter is to help trail managers, decision-makers and volunteers to maintain Ontario's trails in a way that enhances the safety, sustainability and enjoyment of trails for all potential users.

It is essential that trail maintenance be considered as just one part of the overall trail management programme . The maintenance plan for the trail is developed on the basis of the initial trail inventory (after construction and before the trail was opened to public use) combined with information about the intended standards for user safety and enjoyment. Detailed trail assessment systems, such as the Trails Canada assessment or the Universal Trail Assessment Process, should have been used to complete the initial trail inventory . These detailed trail assessment systems collect all of the required trail-related information in one assessment (maintenance information, information for user safety and satisfaction, interpretive and mapping information, information for planning and budgeting trail work.). For more detailed information about trail assessment, refer to Appendix G .

In most cases, trails will require routine maintenance such as clearing brush or making repairs to the trail tread. With the proper tools and techniques, basic trail maintenance tasks can be done by people of almost any skill or energy level . Where trails have been neglected for a long time, or in places where floods, fires or other natural and unnatural acts have caused havoc, even the most experienced trail builder can find challenge and satisfaction in the work of restoring the tread to a safe, usable condition.

The best practices for trail maintenance include the following steps:

• Completing trail inspections and evaluations.
• Establishing a maintenance plan for the trail.
• Maintaining proper drainage.
• Maintaining the trail tread.
• Maintaining trail vegetation.
• Maintaining trail structures and facilities.

Design for Easy Maintenance

Making trail maintenance easy begins with trail routing and design. Even before a trail is built, the maintenance requirements of the trail will largely be determined. All aspects of trail design and construction will influence the required maintenance. Whenever possible, take the time to anticipate and minimize potential problems through appropriate trail design and quality trail construction . On existing trails that require a high level of maintenance, use inspection and evaluation information to consider whether changes to the design or construction of trail facilities and structures or the re-routing of sections of trail could help to reduce on-going maintenance to a more manageable level. Refer to Guidelines for Trail Design for detailed information about sustainable trail planning and design.

Choices made at the planning and construction stages will significantly influence the maintenance demands of a trail . The type of tread material, trail route, or materials used for constructed facilities will influence trail maintenance. Clearly some materials are more resistant to wear and environmental impacts than others. Unfortunately, often the materials that are the most durable are also more expensive to buy and require more skills or equipment to use or install. Similarly, some landscapes are also more able to withstand the unavoidable impacts of trail use. When building a trail in a more sensitive or unstable environment, a plan for ensuring the on-going maintenance of the trail environment is essential. Some factors to consider include:

• Sun exposure (sunny, south-facing slopes will dry more quickly), annual rain and snow fall, number of freeze/thaw cycles and speed of Spring thaw.
• Slope of the tread and adjacent land (stay within the angle of repose, low or flat areas are difficult to drain).
• Native vegetation and indigenous soil (mature forests have less ground cover, some soils are more resilient or better suited for a compacted tread).
• Type of environment (e.g., forest, wetland).
• Natural drainage patterns around the trail (dispersed sheet drainage, location of water courses, beaver activity) and user access to drinking water sources.
• Desired number and style of constructed facilities and structures, as well as the preferred construction materials (affecting treatment, repair or replacement needs).
• Availability and suitability of trees for blazes and sign posts (signs on live trees will need to be re-positioned as the tree grows).

Inspection and Evaluation

For existing trails, the most important factor affecting trail maintenance is the completion of regular maintenance evaluations and trail inspections . A maintenance evaluation is a formal inspection that requires a complete walk through of the entire trail. Trail inspections can be done by combining the information gathered through informal walks along the trail with feedback provided by trail users . The purpose of the inspection or evaluation is to:

• Identify the features and facilities that are found throughout the trail.
• Specify the current condition of the features and facilities.
• Detail the work required to bring them up to, or maintain them at the intended standard.

Regular trail inspections and evaluations should be completed and properly documented in order to reduce the liability exposure of the trail managing group or agency. For most trails, evaluations should be completed at least once per year, or more often if required for insurance or risk management purposes. Results from all trail evaluations, including how the issues identified were addressed, should be retained along with other records for the trail as required for risk management purposes (typically a period of at least 7 years). Document not only the trail tread, but the entire trail corridor and all associated structures (e.g., bridges) and facilities (e.g., parking, washrooms). If trail inspections cannot be completed on a regular basis because of the remote location of the trail, ensure that information about the limited maintenance and evaluation activities is available to all trail users.

Regular monitoring of the on-trail conditions, structures and facilities provides the data needed to identify required maintenance work in a timely and cost-effective manner. By identifying a problem as soon as it starts to develop, inspections will provide advance warnings of potential safety issues and costly repairs to major structures. More importantly, regular monitoring and quick repairs of small problems can prevent expensive and dangerous problems from arising at all. Virtually all big trail maintenance problems started out as a small problem that was either not recognized or was ignored . Regular monitoring over time can also enhance the effectiveness of trail planning and budgeting for trail maintenance, as well as assist land managers in identifying those sections of trail that require more frequent monitoring.

A good maintenance survey can be done easily by one person . However, having a second person involved in the assessment is highly recommended. An assessment crew of two people can make the work more enjoyable, reduce the total assessment time, provide for discussions or alternative ideas about identified problems, and enable the sharing of expertise. Traditionally, a maintenance survey was completed using a measuring wheel, flagging tape or pin flags, grease pencils and a handheld tape recorder. These methods can still be used, but the use of a GPS recorder integrated with a GIS mapping system is usually more accurate and often more time efficient. GPS units can often be obtained from the local municipality, Conservation Authority or Ministry of Natural Resources if the trail group does not have its own.

It is important that everyone involved in conducting a trail inspection or evaluation uses the same terminology, for trail features and required actions, as well as the same units of measurement. Consistency in all aspects of the trail inventory process will make it much easier to use the inspection/evaluation results to develop an effective trail maintenance plan. Any problems uncovered during trail evaluations or inspections should be corrected as quickly as possible, given the resources and skills of the trail managing organization.

Each maintenance survey should be based on the results from a previous assessment . A copy of the assessment results (detailed log of the previous trail conditions) should be carried during the assessment so that any changes to the expected conditions can be easily identified and recorded. If a GPS recorder or handheld computer is used, previous assessment results should be pre-loaded so that data entry during the maintenance survey is limited to those areas or facilities where changes have occurred. Record any deficiencies or changes noted during the maintenance assessment in the trail or data log with sufficient detail to allow for accurate estimates of the required labour, tools, and materials needed for the work.

Evaluations and inspections can also be combined with repair or maintenance work on the trail if the people doing the inspections have the necessary time, skills and tools. Combining trail monitoring and maintenance activities usually works best when the trail is relatively short, because the completion of maintenance activities can usually be accomplished without limiting the completion of the evaluation/inspection. Combining activities is also important for sections of trail in more remote locations that take a significant amount of time to reach. It is always a good idea to have trail inspectors carry a couple of simple tools, such as anvil clippers to cut back small limbs, a hammer to pound in raised nails and a bag for collecting litter. Of course a trail map and notebook (preferably a waterproof surveyors book) should be carried to note the location of problems and the work required to make repairs. When monitoring is done on a regular basis, the maintenance activities are more likely to remain small in scope so that they can be easily completed by only one or two people.

To plan and conduct formal maintenance evaluations , consider these key points:

• Schedule at least one formal maintenance evaluation each year .
  Ideally, the maintenance evaluation should be scheduled so that required maintenance work can be identified and addressed before the busiest season of use. During the evaluation, a checklist or log of the trail conditions and facilities should be used to guide the evaluation so that important factors or information is not missed or forgotten. The formal maintenance evaluation should also include a review of public comments received about the trail conditions and the results of informal inspections completed since the last formal evaluation. For wilderness trails in remote areas, formal maintenance evaluations will be much less frequent, or even limited to the initial assessment after construction and before the trail is opened for public use.
• Ensure that the trail inspector performing the evaluation has the required skill, knowledge, qualifications and expertise. Formal maintenance evaluations should not be conducted by untrained personnel. The individual responsible for the evaluation must be properly trained, have detailed knowledge of trail construction techniques, be skilled at recognizing current and potential maintenance issues (e.g., not only erosion on the trail tread but dead limbs or trees a distance away from the tread that may be a potential safety hazard), and be capable of conducting an impartial examination of the trail (i.e., one that is not biased for or against the needs of any one trail user group). It is helpful if the person doing the evaluation has knowledge of the trail's design and construction. On trails that include built structures with a designated load bearing capacity (e.g., bridge, boardwalk, tower), it is recommended that the inspection be completed by a structural engineer or someone similarly qualified.
• Have individuals representing permitted trail users and the group(s) responsible for maintenance and trail management accompany the trail inspector . Representatives from other involved groups (user groups, individuals, adjacent landowners, etc) can also be invited, if applicable. The evaluation will be most effective if it considers the abilities of all permitted trail users . Someone who rides a horse or bicycle on a trail will "see" different potential problems than the avid backpacker, and the backpacker's ideas will be different from those of a family with young children, older adults or people with disabilities. If possible, have two or three people who use the trail in different ways go with the trail inspector during the maintenance evaluation. Having different perspectives available will help to ensure a more complete and comprehensive evaluation.
• Each section and structure of a new trail should be fully inspected upon completion, before the trail or structure is open for use . A formal maintenance evaluation should also be completed after 6 and 12-months of trail use. After the first 12-month period, the on-going maintenance evaluation cycle will be determined on the basis of the work performed to date, anticipated changes to the trail conditions over time and the time and resources required.

To plan and conduct informal trail inspections, consider the following key points:

• Identify an inspection coordinator . Designate one person who will be the point-of-contact for trail users and others who identify maintenance concerns or wish to convey information about on-trail conditions. Make the contact information for the inspection coordinator available to trail users through trail brochures, signs or other information formats. Having one person designated as the inspection coordinator helps to ensure that information reporting is not misplaced or delayed.
• Complete less formal inspections regularly throughout the season(s) of use for the trail. For trails that are open to year-round use, at least one informal inspection should be completed in each season. Informal inspections are most easily accomplished by having a group of trail users take responsibility for monitoring specific sections of the trail on a regular basis.
• Trail organizations should establish a simple and obvious way for all trail users to report potential problems that they may observe on the trail. Public comments received by emails, letters, telephone calls, etc. should be reviewed as they arrive to identify any significant safety issues on the trail.
• Trail inspections should be completed after any severe weather event , especially if there is heavy rain or snow and/or high winds. These inspections should focus not only on the trail tread, but also on potential safety concerns (e.g., trees and limbs that have been partially blown over, landslides and washouts, bridge or support structures that have been shifted or loosened).
• Public comments and results of the less formal inspections should be recorded and then reviewed in conjunction with the next formal maintenance evaluation if the issues raised are not time-sensitive or related to a safety issue on the trail.

Timing the Trail Inspection or Evaluation

The best time to do maintenance evaluations and trail inspections is after bad weather or during Spring thaw because:

• Frost, erosion and water flow are more easily identified.
• The extra water from snow melt and early rains will make drainage problems much more prominent.
• Features of the trail environment are easier to see before the leaves are out on the trees.
• The early Spring is just before the season of heaviest use for most Ontario trails (except snowmobile trails) so that any essential work can be identified and completed before there are large numbers of users on the trail.

Be sure to investigate and document the source of the problem , not just the result.

When assessing water problems on the trail, the most important questions to ask are:

1. Where and what is the source of the water?
2. Where is the water going?
3. How can I keep or quickly get the water off the trail?

Spring is also a good time to identify damage to the trail tread, structures or facilities from freeze/thaw cycles . Trails in southern Ontario are particularly prone to damage because of the frequent temperature fluctuations above and below freezing. As the temperature drops below freezing, water droplets turn to ice which makes them get larger. The force of the ice creates small cracks that fill with water as the temperature rises only to re-freeze with even more ice the next time the temperature drops.

Providing Inspection Results to Trail Users

When maintenance evaluations or trail inspections identify work that needs to be done on a trail, it is very important that trail users are made aware of the results. Nothing will destroy the social sustainability of a trail more quickly than having users arrive at or start out on a trail that is not safe and enjoyable to use . There are an almost endless number of methods that can be used to provide inspection results to trail users. Notice boards at trail access points, web sites, email lists of trail members, trail newsletters, local newspapers, and community information sources (e.g., library, recreation centre or store information boards) are just a few examples of the options available.

The resources available to, and the type of use for each trail will determine the most appropriate method of providing inspection results to trail users . For example, posting inspection information on a trail web site is often appropriate for trails that attract a large number of users who do not live adjacent to the trail. For trails that function primarily for the use of residents in the immediate vicinity, it may be more appropriate to provide information at trail access points or through local sources of information (e.g., local newspaper, store bulletin boards, membership email list). Regardless of the format used, providing trail users with accurate information about maintenance issues on the trail is a proactive approach to proper trail management. When providing information to trail users, be sure to include:

• What the problem is.
• Where it is located on the trail.
• When it is expected to be corrected.
• Who to contact for more detailed information about the problem.

Closing a Trail

Trails may be closed, either temporarily or permanently, for a variety of reasons. Temporary closures typically occur because the maintenance work required on a trail is extensive or the trail may be hazardous or difficult to use until the required work is completed. Trails that are not appropriate in terms of their location or environmental impact , either from a sustainability or universal design perspective, should be decommissioned (i.e., permanently closed). It is important to recognize that many volunteer trail groups will not have the resources or expertise to return a badly damaged trail to a safe and usable condition when large-scale problems have occurred (e.g., forest fire).

Social trails are unplanned, unofficial trails that are created when users take a short cut or go off of the trail tread. As soon as it is recognized, the development of a social trail should be noted in trail inspection reports. It is important to investigate why the social trail is developing. It may be that the public is telling you with their feet where a trail should be constructed. Before closing a social trail, find out why the trail is occurring and determine whether it should become an official trail or whether it should be closed. If the trail becomes official, make sure that it gets developed according to the recommended guidelines for trail design and construction (see Guidelines for Trail Design and Guidelines for Trail Construction ) and is of a similar standard as the rest of the trail(s) in the area. Of course, obtaining permission from the land owner as well as any other groups with jurisdiction over the land (e.g., Conservation Authority) is essential before changing a social trail to an official trail is even considered.

Consider closing a trail or trail segment, either temporarily or permanently, when [84], [85]:

• There is a significant negative impact on the ecology/wildlife or cultural/historic aspects of the trail environment.
• There is a hazardous condition or situation on the trail.
• Conditions cannot be made safe for permitted trail users, particularly those who are less experienced or less skilled.
• Continued use of the trail, prior to the completion of repairs, will result in additional damage to the trail or trail environment.
• The tread is consistently wet or muddy even with proper drainage and outslope.
• The grade exceeds the angle of repose (where the soil is naturally stable) and/or significant erosion problems are evident.
• Inappropriate use of the trail is occurring and cannot be prevented.
• A catastrophic event has caused severe damage.
• The nesting behaviour of important species will be disrupted.
• Trail users cannot be brought into or through a sensitive environment without causing permanent damage to that environment.

Let people know what is being done to the trail and why the trail or trail segment is closed . The most difficult part of closing a trail or trail segment is ensuring that trail users stop using the route. In most cases, trail users will readily comply if they are educated about the reason(s) for the closure and provided with an alternative trail that connects with adjacent sections and intersecting trails. Fences and signs often will not deter trail users from continuing along a well-established route unless a clear, attractive and well-marked alternative is provided. Long closures of a trail (e.g., half of one season of use or more) will encourage users to find other trails of interest and, therefore, may have a negative impact on the longer-term social and economic sustainability of the trail.

When a trail or trail segment must be closed temporarily :

• Erect barrier(s) at all access point(s) for the trail.
• Provide information at each barrier about why the trail has been closed, when it is expected to re-open and who to contact for additional information.
• Provide an alternate route if the route is safe and appropriate for both trail users and the environment and all needed permissions have been obtained.

When a trail or segment must be permanently closed, the tread must be removed and rehabilitated. It is not sufficient to make the trail "unusable", such as felling a large tree across the trail or removing a bridge. Attempts to discourage use by creating "barriers", will only draw attention to the closed area and/or encourage users to find an alternate path around the obstruction. For the same reason, fences, gates and other barricades should not be used to enforce a permanent trail closure.

To permanently close a section of trail:

• Construct the new trail or reroute before the original trail is closed . Having the new route established and open for use will enable the environmental rehabilitation work to proceed without limiting trail use and will discourage trail users from continuing on the original trail once that section is closed. The new trail construction will also generate interest from trail users so that the need for the trail closure can be clearly explained. Ensure that all needed permissions (e.g., Conservation Authority, land owner) have been obtained before construction of the new route begins.
• Update trail information sources .
  Remove all signs from trail access points and update all trail literature. Replace information about the trail on web sites and in brochures with information about why the trail has been closed.
• Remove the trail tread and cut bank .
  Remove all of the trail tread and cut bank and aerate the soils to promote revegetation. Organic materials and loose rocks on the tread should be saved for later use. Constructed surfaces should be completely dismantled and all materials removed. The compacted soil on natural-surface trails should be tilled to a depth of at least 5 cm (2 inches) so that new plants can grow.
• Recreate the natural drainage patterns .
  Remove all material from the fill slope (downhill side of the tread) and use it to re-construct the original drainage contours within the trail corridor. Shape the material so that the original slopes and drainages are restored. If additional materials are required, try to acquire materials from the newly constructed trail rather than importing materials from another environment. Ruts and rills from erosion of the old tread should be tilled to loosen the densely compacted soils. The ruts are then filled with local soils and materials to re-create the original shape and contours of the land. If gullies are too large to be filled, install check dams at 3 cm, 5 m or 10 m intervals (for slopes of >30, 20 to 30, or <20 degrees respectively). Filling the gully between check dams with brush cuttings will further slow the flow of water and encourage natural sedimentation.
• Remove all trail access points .
  Remove all signs, sign posts and constructed facilities from closed trail access points. Remove all paving materials from parking areas. Till the compacted soil of the parking area to a depth of at least 5 cm (2 inches) so that new plants can grow.
• Re-plant the trail tread and access points .
  Plant native vegetation (plants, grasses, small trees) to cover and camouflage the tilled areas. Tilled soil that is left to naturally regenerate will be highly susceptible to invasive species. The choice of vegetation for planting is extremely important and requires expert knowledge of the local environment. If a re-route is being constructed, transplant the vegetation from the new route is the optimal method of ensuring that the new vegetation is genetically matched to the trail environment. Always plant vegetation in a random fashion for a natural aesthetic (rather than rows).
• Disguise the trail corridor .
  Make the trail corridor look like it was never there. Rake leaves and organic material onto the tread, put rocks on the tread or drag logs and branches across the tread. Remember to "plant" deadfall at eye level, as well as on the ground, to eliminate the air space above the original tread. Large rocks or logs can be winched across the access point to further discourage use of the closed section. However, this must be done in a way that makes these obstructions look as if they naturally occurred and the placement of large barriers should not be done until all other steps have been completed (i.e., the original tread has been obliterated).

Easy Trail Maintenance – It's All in the Plan

Planning is the most important aspect of trail maintenance. Planning allows you to:

• Design and construct a trail that will require less maintenance.
• Establish a system for identifying required maintenance.
• Complete trail work quickly and effectively.

Designing and constructing a trail with maintenance in mind will enable you to create a trail that requires minimal, or at least a manageable amount of maintenance. Unfortunately, the majority of trails in Ontario were never formally "planned". It is much more common for Ontario trails to follow routes that were established long ago (e.g., traditional travel routes or game trails) or for other purposes (e.g., rail lines, logging or mining roads). On these "inherited" trails, evaluation can help to minimize maintenance requirements by establishing a system for identifying and repairing small problems before they become significant, and by making efficient and effective use of the time and skills of the hundreds of trail volunteers who provide their labour.

Assuming a good trail design, quality construction, a clear understanding of the environmental conditions of the site, and an understanding of the needs of trail users and the amount and type of trail use, it's possible to estimate maintenance needs long into the future . Future maintenance needs should be calculated at 6-month, 1-year, 5-year and 20-year intervals. To a large degree maintenance activities are predictable. However, the results from trail inspections/evaluations should be used to dictate the actual maintenance activities performed.

To create a trail maintenance plan , complete the following steps:

1. Document and describe the trail tread and trail corridor in detail .
   The entire trail tread and trail corridor must be described as fully as possible so that the maintenance needs of each section can be anticipated. A detailed description of the trail tread and trail corridor should be available from the results of the initial trail inventory (completed after construction and before the trail is opened for use). If an initial inventory is not available, use the information compiled during trail design and development along with trail maps to clearly identify each section of the trail. Use a number or symbol reference system to indicate where each described section of the trail is located on the map. Provide as much detail about the on-trail conditions as possible for each section. For example where the trail tread is made from the natural soil, describe the type of soil, slopes on and adjacent to the tread, and the type of vegetation on and around the trail. Detailed information about the trail and trail corridor can be used to anticipate the maintenance demands within each section of the trail (e.g., a section through dense, fast-growing vegetation will need more frequent maintenance than a section on bedrock or through a mature forest with little ground cover). Similarly, areas with sandy soil or steeper grades are typically more prone to damage from erosion. The known or potential maintenance concerns for each trail section should also be included in the documentation.

2. Inventory the trail structures and facilities .
   Create an inventory of all trail structures (e.g., bridge, culvert, boardwalk) and facilities (e.g., washroom, parking, potable water) from the information collected during the initial trail inventory. The facility and structure inventory should be as detailed as possible so that the anticipated maintenance for each structure or facility can be determined. Each built structure should be described in terms of the materials used, the size and shape of the structure, and any paint or coating used. The known or potential maintenance concerns for each structure should also be recorded. If data from the initial trail inventory is not available, an inventory of trail structures and facilities should be created during the next trail evaluation.

3. Schedule and delegate maintenance tasks .
   Develop a maintenance work plan that includes a detailed list of the maintenance activities to be performed, who is responsible for the completion of each activity and when the work must be done (e.g., ASAP, within one month, next Fall). There should also be a system for recording the date that work is completed and the names of the people who are responsible for doing the work. The list of maintenance activities should include anticipated maintenance work (based on the trail description and facility/structure inventory) as well as additional tasks identified through trail inspections. When determining the schedule of maintenance tasks, a wide variety of factors must be considered. These include weather conditions, soil moisture conditions, trail use patterns, trail worker skill levels, logistics, availability of tools and materials, presence of threatened and endangered species, etc.
   
   Maintenance actions should be scheduled under headings such as the following :
   Daily/Weekly - tasks done very frequently on higher-use trails
   Monthly - tasks done frequently on lower-use trails
   Seasonally - tasks done for each season of use
   Annually - tasks done very infrequently
   Special Case - Immediate - tasks requiring urgent attention due to safety concerns
   Special Case - Short or Medium-Term - additional tasks that are not done at regular intervals.
4. Develop inventories of trail facilities.
   Utilize the detailed trail information to create inventories of on-trail facilities. In general, inventories should be created for the following categories:
   Signs – trailhead signs, on-trail signs, blazes, etc.
   Load-Bearing Facilities – bridges, boardwalks, ladders, etc.
   User Health and Safety Facilities – water sources, toilets, emergency shelters, etc.
   User Amenities – benches, picnic tables, fire pits, etc.
   
   Comprehensive facility inventories make it much easier to record needed maintenance work as it is observed and reported by trail users. Inventories of all facilities within each section of trail should be provided to all trail work parties. In this way, people working on the trail can monitor the availability and condition of trail facilities on an on-going basis. The facility inventories should be updated whenever a new facility is constructed or installed. It is often helpful to identify each facility with a unique identification number. The ID number can be used to clearly identify each facility and match it to its description in the trail inventory. In this way, if a facility is damaged or missing it can be more easily replaced.
   
5. Calculate maintenance costs and resources .
   The costs (labour, tools, materials) should be determined for all maintenance work scheduled in the plan. Costs are calculated based on labour rates, expected labour production, material costs, and facility life expectancies. If work is identified that exceeds the maintenance resources available, the work required should be transferred to trail construction/reconstruction costs so that additional resources can be acquired.

Maintaining Proper Trail Drainage

Ensuring proper drainage and water flow in the trail environment is critical to long-term environmental and social sustainability (i.e., the provision of a safe and enjoyable trail experience for all users). The frequency of drainage-related maintenance activities will depend on many factors, including the trail environment, layout/design of the trail, type of use, natural drainage patterns and the types of drainage control measures.

From a broad perspective, maintenance activities to ensure proper trail drainage should focus on the following activities:

• Maintaining the outslope of the trail tread.
• Ensuring that drainage structures function as intended.
• Replacing or repairing trail tread or structures that have been moved by water flow.

Trails that are properly designed and constructed to be sustainable will require little or no maintenance related to water flow and trail drainage. If maintenance work is frequent or drainage structures are required, it suggests that the trail was not designed for sustainability. Whenever possible, maintenance activities should bring the tread closer to a match with the natural drainage patterns. The closer the match between the natural drainage pattern and the constructed trail drainage facilities, the less maintenance that will be required.

Restoring the Tread Outslope

Maintaining the desired outslope of the trail tread is the "first order of business" in the maintenance of trails with natural surfaces. It is the simplest, but most important and most labour-intensive trail maintenance task .

Trail surfaces that are not compacted, firm and stable enough for permitted trail users may build up a berm along the outside (downhill) edge of the trail. The berm results from a combination of compaction in the centre of the tread (because of higher use in that area of the trail) and the displacement of loose material towards the downhill side of the tread. Whether the "berm" on the edge of the trail is created by the accumulation of loose material or the compaction of the centre of the tread, the result is the same. Water gets trapped on the trail tread creating puddles of water or areas of soft tread material. If not repaired, eventually the water will drain down the tread, increasing erosion, and trail users will venture off the trail tread in search of a solid trail surface, increasing environmental impact.

The frequency of work required to maintain the tread outslope will vary, depending on how the trail was originally designed and constructed. Soils that are firm and stable and trails that are used by fewer people will require less work. In contrast, trails in areas with high precipitation, unstable soils or with certain types of trail use (e.g., high levels of equestrian use) will likely need more frequent maintenance.

Like most trail maintenance projects, the work of maintaining the outslope will be much easier if it is done before the tread deteriorates significantly . If the berm is allowed to increase in size, damage to the trail tread will be much more significant and more effort will be required to dismantle the berm and re-establish the required outslope. The key to maintaining tread outslope is to do the required work on a regular basis so that a berm, if it occurs at all, is never more than a minimal size (10 cm (4 inches) or less in height with no vegetation).

To restore the tread outslope :

1. Remove vegetation from the berm.
   If the berm has been stable for an extended period of time, or if the trail is located in an area with fast vegetation re-growth, the berm may be partly or completely covered in vegetation. If the vegetation is an invasive species, it should be removed from the area. If the vegetation is native to the area, it should be carefully removed and replanted to restore the trail tread or surrounding environment. Use shovels, picks and other tools to remove or transplant the vegetation [86].
2. Till the berm and tread to loosen the material .
   Use hoes, picks and other tools to loosen and till the material that forms the berm. Areas of the tread where the berm material will be placed (e.g., entrenched, compacted and depressed areas of the tread) should also be tilled or scarified so that the original and additional material will mix and bond well. Loosening of the material should be done carefully so that the material is kept on the trail tread.
3. Move the material to the uphill side of the tread.
   Use rakes, shovels and McLeod tools to move the loose material to the uphill side of the tread. Distribute the loose material in a layer up to 10 cm (4 inches) thick. Shape the loose material so that it provides a consistent outslope from the uphill to the downhill side of the trail tread. The soil must be moist to achieve proper shaping and compaction.
4. Compact the material.
   The trail tread should be mechanically compacted using a roller or vibratory plate. Make sure that the soil or tread material is moist. Dry materials do not adhere or compact well. Mechanically compacting the material decreases the likelihood of the material shifting back to the downhill side of the tread. It also provides a tread surface that is less likely to further compact under the weight of trail users. If mechanized compaction is not available, tamping tools or the flat side/end of many trail tools can be used to compact the loose material into it's new location. However, compaction by hand is labour intensive and the treads usually continue to change shape with trail use (and therefore require more maintenance).
5. Repeat tread shaping and compaction .
   Continue to move material to the uphill side of the tread and then compact the material in 10 cm (4 inch) layers until the desired tread outslope is restored.
6. Remove remaining berm material.
   If the desired outslope has been restored but not all of the berm material has been removed, continue to loosen the berm material until the downhill edge of the trail provides a clear path for water to drain quickly off of the side of the tread. Unused berm material can be used to repair the trail tread in other locations. Alternatively, it may be possible to carefully distribute the extra material through the surrounding terrain, being careful not to disturb natural drainage patterns or native vegetation.
7. Encourage vegetation in the buffer zones beside the tread.
   Vegetation removed from the berm can be replanted in the buffer zones adjacent to the trail tread. Replanting helps to disguise the recent maintenance work. If portions of the buffer zones are not vegetated and replanting is not possible, rake a shallow top layer of soil in the buffer zone to encourage the natural regeneration of vegetation.

Maintaining Drainage Structure Function

Properly designed drainage structures should require little to no maintenance in order for them to function properly. Culverts and other drainage structures that become clogged with debris, silt or leaves provide evidence that the structure is less than optimal for the environmental sustainability of the trail. If trails are designed and constructed using a curvilinear layout, very few drainage structures will be required. The drainage structures needed for a curvilinear trail are only those that serve to separate the trail tread from natural drainage channels (e.g., provide a trail surface above a deep or fast-moving natural drainage). On existing or inherited trails that do not follow a curvilinear alignment, additional drainage structures may be required.

Drainage structures should be inspected regularly as part of the trail maintenance plan. Additional inspections should be completed after major weather events (e.g., storms, rain, snow, wind). Look for signs of water damage, erosion, settling of the structure or sedimentation. If these changes are evident, examine the surrounding area to determine the source of the problem and then make appropriate repairs.

To maintain drainage structures , including culverts, swales, and trenches:

1. Inspect the drainage structure.
   Examine the drainage structure for evidence of erosion or deposition in or near the drainage structure. Erosion may result from water flow or trail use (e.g., unstable surfaces at the edge of the tread that are collapsing toward a culvert). Deposits are the accumulation of water, sediment or other debris. Also check for signs that the drainage structure has changed position (e.g., was moved by water flow, has settled into sub-soil).
   
2. Determine the source of the problem .
   Follow the "trail" of the water flow to determine the cause of the erosion or the source of the deposits. Verify that all water flow is within the intended drainage channel. If there is a problem with the control of water flow it is usually because the trail design or structure is forcing water flow out of the natural drainage channel.
3. Repair the source of the problem.
   Stabilizing the trail environment so that water does not reposition materials is the most sustainable way to deal with problems of erosion and deposition. Failing to properly stabilize the source of the problem will result in the need for continual maintenance to clear deposits from the drainage structure so that it continues to function properly. The source of the erosion or deposition must be identified and repaired before the drainage structure itself is maintained.

A clear understanding of the flow of water and the forces causing the erosion and deposition is required in order to make an effective repair. In most cases, the poor alignment or design of the trail, or a drainage structure that is not properly sized or positioned, will be the cause of the erosion and deposition problems . Before trying to "fix" or reinforce an imposed drainage pattern, carefully examine the trail and surrounding environment to identify the natural drainage channel. The drainage structure installed must be appropriate to the natural volume and patterns of water flow and the type of trail and trail user. Always choose a drainage structure design that will enable all permitted trail users to use the trail in a safe and enjoyable manner.

Maintenance efforts should be focused on returning water flow within the trail environment to the natural drainage pattern . The exact method of repair will be determined by conditions in the surrounding environment. In general, use rock (e.g., riprap) or vegetation to stabilize eroding surfaces so that material cannot be moved or deposited by water flow through the drainage structure. If the source of the erosion is outside of the trail environment, then the erosion is a natural process and the trail drainage structures must be designed to accommodate the sediment-filled water flow.

4. Clear the drainage structure .
   After the source of the problem has been repaired, clear the accumulated debris from the drainage structure. In most cases, this can best be done using shovels, rakes and other hand tools. If there is only a small amount of debris, water can be used to flush debris out of enclosed drainage structures (e.g., culvert).
5. Ensure that the drainage structure is properly positioned.
   Water flow, settling of soil or user traffic may change the position of drainage structures over time. Examine the structure to determine whether water is flowing freely through the structure, without eroding areas around the inlet or outlet of the structure. If water does not flow freely, it will deposit additional material as it is forced to slow or change direction.
6. Stabilize the banks around the drainage structure .
   Ensure that the ground around the inlet and outlet of the drainage structure is stable. Use rocks and vegetation to reinforce or stabilize loose material as required. Use different sizes of rocks and native vegetation to create a more natural appearance.
7. Repair the tread over a closed drainage structure .
   If a closed drainage structure (e.g., culvert) is used, ensure that the tread material is replaced and compacted over top of the structure once the other repairs are complete. If maintenance of the drainage structure has been neglected for a length of time so that the structure was completely blocked, the tread material may have been eroded by water flow over the trail. In this case, repair the tread as indicated in the following section by gathering material from the erosion path and supplementing with additional material as required.

Drain Dips / Grade Reversals

Drain dips are wide, shallow depressions that are sloped toward the downhill side of a trail tread. Drain dips are also called grade reversals because the tread goes downhill and then "reverses" uphill. Drain dips / grade reversals use changes in the slope of the trail tread to direct water off of the trail. They take advantage of water's tendency to flow downhill. Essentially, they use the slope of the tread to collect water and channel it to the downhill side of a trail.

Constructing the trail route to take advantage of naturally occurring swales, drainages and grade changes can minimize the need for constructed drainage features. Drain dips / grade reversals should never be included in newly designed trails . Allowing water to collect and flow along the trail tread, even for short distances, increases the probability of erosion and water saturation of the trail tread. These factors have significant negative impacts on the environmental and social sustainability of a trail. The need to direct flowing water off of the trail tread, which is the purpose of drain dips / grade reversals, is a clear indication that the trail was not developed for sustainability using a curvilinear alignment. Although never recommended for new trail construction, drain dips / grade reversals can be used to control erosion, water flow and the maintenance required on existing or inherited trails. Drain dips / grade reversals should always be used instead of waterbars to rehabilitate or maintain trails that disrupt natural drainage patterns (i.e., are not sustainably designed). The use of drain dips / grade reversals rather than waterbars is particularly important on trails used by cyclists or people who use other wheeled forms of mobility because they can channel water flow while keeping the trail tread barrier-free for users.

To construct a drain dip / grade reversal:

1. Plan gradual changes in grade and cross slope.
   The downhill and uphill sections of the drain dip / grade reversal must be designed and constructed so that all changes in slope are gradual. Sudden changes in slope will dramatically alter the flow of water, causing sediment deposits on the trail tread. Make sure that the size of the drain dip / grade reversal is adequate for the maximum expected water flow.
2. Construct a large outflow area.
   The outflow is the area at the lowest point of the drain dip / grade reversal where the water flows off of the tread. It should have sufficient cross slope so that the sediment-filled water flows easily off and well away from the trail tread . Ensure there is no berm on the downhill edge of the tread. Slope the buffer zone at the outflow steeply away from the tread. The outflow should be slightly lower level than, and have a length that is twice the width of the adjacent tread.
3. Excavate the drain dip / grade reversal.
   In most terrain, the drain drip / grade reversal can be constructed with hand tools (e.g., pick, shovel). Excavate the required downslope (if the tread is not steep enough) and use the excavated material to create the upslope / grade reversal material beyond the outflow. If the excavated material is not sufficient to create the required grade reversal, additional material should be brought to the site from other areas along the trail (e.g., where a berm has been removed from the edge of the trail tread). Excess material should be used for tread repair at other locations on the trail or widely dispersed in the adjacent environment. Make sure that any dispersed material cannot migrate onto the trail tread or alter the function of the drain drip / grade reversal.
4. Sculpt and compact the tread .
   Use mechanical compactors (e.g., vibratory plate) to sculpt and solidly compact the tread material into the required shape. The top of theupslope should be at least 30 cm (12 inches) above the lowest point on the tread. If mechanical compactors are not available, rakes, hoes and tamping tools (e.g., McLeod) can also be used but generally do not provide enough compacting force to prevent further movement and compaction through regular trail use. Compaction of the tread throughout the drain dip / grade reversal is critical . The tread must be fully compacted during construction so that there is no change to the slope or contours of the tread within the drain dip / grade reversal even with heavy trail use. If use of the trail or water flow on the tread results in shifting, pitting or rutting of the tread surface, the function of the drain dip / grade reversal may be compromised
5. Clear the outflow .
   Remove all vegetation (other than ground cover), loose soil and debris from the area of the outflow. The cleared area should be large enough that water will flow 1 metre (3.3 feet) or more off of the tread before it stops moving .

Waterbars

Waterbars are wood, stone or rubber surfaces that are placed across the tread at an angle so that water running down the tread is directed off to the side of the trail. Waterbars are always a problem on trails . Although intended to control erosion and trap sediment, they often create more severe erosion problems. As water flow is slowed by a waterbar, sediment is deposited on the tread immediately uphill. When the sediment accumulates to the height of the waterbar, water flows over it, increasing the erosive force of the water as it falls over the waterbar and continues unimpeded down the tread. In addition, waterbars create a tripping hazard for all trail users, even if they only extend an inch or two above the tread surface. Trail users on wheels (e.g., cyclists, people using wheelchairs) will go off of the tread to go around the waterbar, increasing damage to the local environment.

The need for waterbars on a trail is a clear signal that the trail has not been designed and constructed for sustainability . Although this is a factual statement based on the latest trail impact research, it is probably the statement that created the most controversy during the development of this resource. Many veteran trail workers and users pointed out, and rightly so, that many existing trails have waterbars and that without the waterbars the erosion on the trail would be even greater. Unfortunately, trail users often consider only the changes to the trail tread that result from waterbars. Relatively few people recognize the negative environmental factors that waterbars represent.

While it is true that the treads of many long-established trails could not exist without the installation of waterbars to limit the quantity and speed of water flow on the tread, that does not mean that waterbars have a positive impact on the environment . The benefits from waterbars for the trail tread can also be obtained from a tread that incorporates drain dips / grade reversals (which will not force users on wheels (e.g., cyclists, people using wheelchairs) off of the tread and require less maintenance).

From the perspective of environmental sustainability, both waterbars and drain dips / grade reversals are fundamentally flawed because:

• Waterbars and drain dips / grade reversals are only required on a trail that is close to the fall line or so significantly entrenched that water flows down the tread rather than throughout the adjacent environment.
• Although there is no doubt that the erosion on fall-line trails would be much worse without some form of diversion, re-directing volumes of water (first down the entrenched or fall line trail and then off of the tread via waterbars) causes environmental damage throughout the trail environment.
• Plants near the waterbar outlet are deluged with unnaturally large volumes of water and sediment.
• Vegetation uphill of the waterbar outlet are starved for precipitation.
• Waterbars require frequent maintenance in order to function properly and not become filled with sediment
• Water cascading over the top of a sediment-filled waterbar accelerates the erosion of the tread immediately downhill of the waterbar.
• Vegetation adjacent to waterbars (i.e., off of the tread) also experiences a high rate of trampling and damage from trail users who do not want to or are unable to step over the waterbars (e.g., cyclists, people who use wheelchairs).

Trails that are built so that natural, sheet drainage patterns are maintained will not have to depend on waterbars or drainage dips to manage unnaturally large accumulations of water. Whenever possible, construct a trail so that it maintains the natural sheet drainage patterns. If a poorly designed trail cannot be reconstructed, install drain dips / grade reversals rather than waterbars . Drain dips / grade reversals perform the same function as waterbars, but they require virtually no maintenance (e.g., removal of accumulated sediment) and do not negatively impact use of the trail (e.g., cyclists).

Recreating Trail Structures Moved by Water Flow

At times it will be necessary to recreate trail structures and facilities that have moved as a result of water flow. Obviously, if water flow in the area is continuous and significant, the trail structure must be re-designed before it is reinstalled. The structure must be appropriately sized, and positioned in order to maintain the natural drainage patterns in the environment. Very rarely, trail structures will be shifted by a truly unique weather or other type of event (e.g., catastrophic failure of an upstream dam). In this case, the trail environment should be carefully examined to determine whether or not the drainage structure should be re-established in the original position. The emphasis here is on "should". In many cases it will be possible to return the structure to its original condition, but the primary question will always be whether that is appropriate for the local trail environment . Putting drainage structures back in locations where they have previously failed, without altering their size or design, is usually a waste of precious trail resources (i.e., time, labour).

In most cases, if a trail structure or facility has been moved by water it is a clear indication that the structure or facility was not sized or located appropriately. In order to install a new drainage structure or facility:

• Determine the source of the problem.
  Examine the area where the structure was originally constructed. Determine the conditions that caused the structure to move. Thick vegetation matted from water flow suggests that flooding of the area is a relatively unusual event. In contrast, if there is evidence of erosion, a lack of vegetation or a concentration of water-tolerant vegetation (e.g., mosses, cattails, reeds), water flow in the area is likely to recur.
• Establish the natural drainage patterns.
  The most accurate way to establish the natural drainage patterns in a trail environment is to complete a detailed observation and assessment of the entire watershed. Runoff and flood data are usually not sufficient to predict the peak runoff levels that the drainage structure will be required to accommodate. Remember, the water in the small creek that trickles under your trail may come from a watershed that is hundreds of square kilometres in size. In the spring melt or when there is heavy rain, that small creek can become a raging river as the water from the entire watershed accumulates at lower elevations. Only when the natural drainage patterns within the trail environment and surrounding watershed have been established can an appropriate style and size of drainage structure be determined.
• Construct an appropriate structure or facility .
  Construct or re-construct an appropriate structure or facility at the site dictated by the natural drainage patterns. Follow the same procedures that would be used during original construction (see Trail Drainage Structures ). If the structure was not damaged by the water movement, it may be possible to re-use the original structure if it is of a suitable design. However, the decision to re-use a structure or facility should be made carefully and only after a careful inspection of the structure/facility has been completed to ensure that it is appropriate, safe and functional. If the structure cannot be re-used, it should be dismantled and the materials removed from the trail environment.
• Repair the original and destination sites for the structure.
  The destination site of the structure or facility is the area where the structure ended up after it was moved by the water. Once the new structure has been constructed in the proper position, the original and destination sites for the previous structure should be fully restored to their natural condition. Remove all broken debris from the site and replant native vegetation so that the original and destination sites are no longer visible to trail users.

Seasonal Wet and Muddy Areas

Ideally, the proposed route for a trail will be inspected in all four seasons before the trail is constructed. If that effort is made, the likelihood of dealing with the high maintenance demands of seasonally wet or muddy areas will be virtually eliminated. The best option for dealing with seasonally wet areas is to relocate the trail to "dry ground". However, if relocating the trail is not an option, the trail tread in seasonally wet areas should be constructed in the same manner as trails in permanently wet environments (see Tread Structures Above the Surrounding Terrain ). Trail users should not be left to "fend for themselves" through seasonally wet areas because, in doing so, they will go off of the trail tread and greatly increase the environmental impact of trail use.

Drainage Problems from Animals

Many Ontario animals can significantly alter the drainage within a trail environment. The beaver is perhaps the most widely recognized "cause" of a trail that has been wonderful for years and then the next year is completely flooded. The pointed, freshly gnawed stumps of trees adjacent to a body of water are a sure sign that beavers have just moved into the area. However, many other animals can also flood trails as they make their "homes" or obtain "food" from the surrounding environment.

The optimal approach for dealing with trail flooding from animal activities is to re-locate the trail . This can be extremely frustrating if, a couple of years later, the animal leaves and the original trail alignment is once again "high and dry". However, ultimately the trail will be more sustainable if it is positioned in an area that is not prone to the "vagaries" of animal behaviour . Areas close to water bodies that could be flooded by animal activity are also prone to drainage problems and often have soils that are not suitable for a sustainable trail tread. For all of these reasons, re-locating the trail is the only option for long-term sustainability . Constantly changing the trail alignment can negatively impact the social sustainability of the trail, not to mention the environmental impact and work of repeatedly relocating portions of the trail.

A common "mistake" among trail organizations is to assume that the beaver dam or other animal structure that is causing the flooding can be dismantled so that the body of water will return to its historical level and location. Beware, the phrase "eager beaver" . In the lore of trail maintenance and construction, it has always been the beaver that comes out "on top" when there is a contest over who has the most energy and resolve. From a practical sense, most trail volunteers lead "other lives" for most of the week. They go to jobs during the day or take care of family. By comparison, the beaver is almost totally focused on creating the habitat needed for survival. Even if you spend 4 or 5 hours each day dismantling the beaver dam, the beaver has about 20 hours per day to thwart your efforts. It's not worth it.

Maintaining the Trail Tread: Solid Surfaces

Solid trail surfaces are those that are constructed of hard materials that are installed in sections or relatively large pieces. Primarily, the materials used are asphalt, concrete or wood. However, other solid surface materials can also be used (e.g., interlocking brick, rubber panels). Asphalt and concrete surfaces are used primarily for urban trails and to reinforce trail surfaces that have very high levels of use or are intended for people travelling on small wheels (e.g., skateboards, inline skates).

The maintenance of solid trail surfaces in Ontario is a function of three key factors:

• Durability of the material used.
• Impact of frost and cycles of freeze-thaw on the position and base of support for the tread material.
• Impact of environmental influences (e.g., sun, precipitation) on the material.

Solid surfaces generally do not need regular "maintenance" in that the surface will remain suitable for trail users on a day-to-day basis. However, for solid trail surfaces to function effectively they must be properly constructed to withstand winter cycles of freezing and thawing. In general, that means that the base of support for the trail tread must be constructed so that it is either below the frost line (e.g., supports for a boardwalk) or flexible enough to accommodate changes in ground position due to frost (e.g., gravel sub-base similar to a road).

Small repairs to solid surfaces will inevitably be required. These repairs usually result from small-scale damage because of freeze-thaw cycles or the degradation of the material over time from exposure to climactic factors (e.g., sun, rain). Trails constructed from solid surfaces should be checked regularly (e.g., weekly or monthly depending on level of use) for needed repairs, particularly at the end of the winter season. If very substantial repairs are required, or if the continuous small repairs required become an onerous burden, consideration should be given to replacing the solid surface with a different material that is easier to maintain.

Trail workers will often observe evidence of erosion adjacent to and under a solid trail surface or the accumulation of water in pools on top of the surface. Correcting these problems on solid surfaces follows the same process as other trail surfaces. Erosion problems result from problems with either water flow or trail users. Water pooling on a solid surface is a clear indication that the appropriate outslope of the tread has not been maintained. The only effective way to deal with these problems is to re-construct or relocate the trail surface so that the source of the problem is effectively addressed. Patching of a solid surface trail without addressing the source of the problem usually just pushes the problem to a different section of the tread .

While there are many good reasons for constructing a trail from a solid surface (e.g., in-line skating), it is not appropriate to require that a trail be built from a solid surface (e.g., asphalt, concrete) in order to "make it accessible to people with disabilities" . Solid trail treads will only provide an accessible surface if they are properly constructed to withstand the freeze-thaw cycles of a typical Ontario winter. Asphalt and concrete are just as likely to have accessibility problems as any other tread material. The choice of a solid surface must be made based on the demands of trail users (e.g., in-line skating), the typical weather and environmental conditions, and the resources available for construction and maintenance.

Concrete Trail Surfaces

In general, if concrete surfaces are properly constructed (i.e., proper sub-base, reinforced for stress) they will require very little routine maintenance throughout the life of the trail. If concrete trail surfaces are extensively damaged (e.g., large or very numerous cracks) or concrete sections have dramatically heaved or settled, trail workers should replace the section of trail rather than trying to make extensive repairs.

Small cracks (less than 1 cm (0.4 inch)) should be joint sealed as soon as possible to prevent moisture from reaching the base foundation. Small gaps in the surface or degradation of the original tread surface should be repaired using concrete patching compound. Concrete patching compounds are a combination of cement and adhesive that adheres to established concrete surfaces. Concrete patching and sealing compounds are available at most hardware and building supply stores. Purchasing materials rated for use in repairing wells or septic tanks will ensure that the material is inert and will not leach chemicals into the surrounding environment.

When minor damage to a concrete trail tread is suitable for sealing or patching, the following methods can be used to return the tread to a safe and usable condition or extend the life of the tread a little longer prior to replacement:

• Prepare the crack or damaged area. Remove any loose material from the damaged area using a stiff wire brush. Make sure that all pieces of concrete that are not solidly attached are loosened and removed.
• Use a mallet and chisel to shape the edges of the crack so that they are "undercut" . This will provide a more secure attachment between the original concrete and the patching compound or sealer. For deep cracks or gaps, construct a compacted, sandy base in the damaged area before applying the patching compound. Everyone working with mallet and chisel should wear safety goggles for eye protection.
• Clean the area to be patched with a cleaning agent that will remove dust and other concrete particles.
• Apply the sealer or patching compound to the crack according to the manufacturer's instructions. Be careful to ensure that the required temperature will be maintained throughout the time needed for the material to dry and cure.

Remove trip hazards

Trip hazards are caused either by erosion under the concrete surface or heaving of the surface upward from frost. When adjacent concrete surfaces are not at the same level, the probability of tripping injuries is greatly increased. Solid trail surfaces, such as concrete, should not be used in areas where freeze-thaw cycles will cause buckling and heaving of the surface unless there are sufficient resources to construct the trail to the standards required by the environmental conditions.

Traditionally, the repair of trip hazards in concrete surfaces was done by grinding the higher-level surface down to match the lower level surface. This type of work typically requires equipment that is best operated by individuals with the proper training and experience. A newer option for these types of repairs is to lift up the lower section so that it comes to match the higher section. If the sections of concrete are very small (e.g., patio stones), this can be done relatively easily. If the concrete sections are too large to be lifted by hand, trail workers may want to obtain professional assistance.

A new product [87] made of polymer resins offers the possibility of drilling a small hole through the concrete and injecting the flexible, inert material under the concrete. The inert material fills any available space below the concrete and then as more material is added under pressure, the polymer resin lifts the concrete into position. However, this product is relatively new and long-term data on the durability of the repair or the suitability of the product for different environments are not yet available. Care must also be taken to ensure that the repaired/lifted surface maintains the correct grade and cross slope for proper drainage.

Asphalt Trail Surfaces

Asphalt trail surfaces are extremely common, particularly in the urban areas of Ontario. Asphalt is often thought of as an easy and inexpensive method for creating a trail surface that is suitable for people of all abilities. Unfortunately, the climate in most areas of Ontario makes it difficult to maintain an asphalt trail in a safe and useable condition. Only rarely, are asphalt trails properly constructed to provide a safe trail tread beyond the first one or two winters. Every Ontarian knows how our asphalt roads, which have a very substantial sub-base, are affected by winter weather. Therefore, it's not surprising that most asphalt trails, which are usually constructed by laying asphalt onto the mineral soil or with only a small sub-base, quickly deteriorate even though the weight of trail users is not comparable to the vehicles on our roads.

After proper construction with a full sub-base, asphalt trails must be regularly sealed and maintained in order to provide a safe and usable tread for trail users of all abilities. On trails with mechanical snow removal, sealing and repairs to asphalt are particularly prone to damage. When machinery is used to remove snow from the trail, the maintenance demands of the trail will be substantially increased. Extensively damaged sections of trail tread should always be replaced, rather than repaired, by skilled professionals using the appropriate equipment.

All of this is not to suggest that asphalt should not be used for trails. Indeed, there are many good reasons to provide asphalt trails and for some types of use (e.g., in-line skating) it is virtually essential. These warnings are simply intended to make trail groups aware that constructing an asphalt trail will not mean that the trail can be ignored for years after the initial construction work. Like all trails, asphalt trails require regular maintenance so that they continue to provide a safe and enjoyable trail experience.

Sealing Asphalt

When a new asphalt trail is constructed the entire asphalt surface needs to be sealed. Sealing is expensive but the life span of the asphalt will easy double or triple if this work is completed. Sealing with a slurry mixture will provide a more skid-resistant trail tread.

Sealing keeps out moisture and prevents the surface from drying out. Sealing also helps to reduce the loss of rock material that is embedded in the asphalt. If the asphalt surface dries to the point where rocks are lost from the surface of the trail tread, the asphalt should be removed and replaced.

After initial construction, the asphalt trails should be re-sealed every 3 to 5 years. Any cracks that form in the asphalt should be sealed before winter and in the early spring. Prompt sealing of cracks will prevent moisture from reaching the sub-base under the trail and will extend the life of the trail by several years.

Trails that do not have regular vehicle traffic may need to be re-sealed more often. On roads, vehicular traffic compacts the asphalt and forces oil up to the surface (sort of a "self-sealing" mechanism). However, there is not enough heavy compaction on most trails intended for human-powered use to allow this to happen so regular sealing of asphalt trails is recommended.

To seal an asphalt trail:

• Use a broom or wash the trail surface to remove any dust and debris from the surface of the asphalt. The use of an asphalt-cleaning compound is recommended.
• Follow the manufacturer's instructions for applying the asphalt-sealing compound . In general, the compound will be of a paint or watery consistency and can be applied using a paint roller or sprayer.
• Block user access to the trail until the sealant has completely dried or cured. The time required will depend on the product used and the temperature and humidity at the site.

Repairing Cracks and Holes in Asphalt

Repairs to asphalt trail treads should be limited to small cracks and potholes that occur on an isolated basis. If more extensive repairs are required, professional assistance should be obtained. Small cracks and potholes can be repaired using these steps:

1. Prepare the crack or damaged area. Remove any loose material from the damaged area using a stiff wire brush or broom.
2. Use a mallet and chisel to shape the edges of the crack so that they are "undercut" . This will provide a more secure attachment between the original asphalt and the patching compound. For deep cracks or gaps, construct a compacted, sandy base in the damaged area before applying the patching compound. Wear safety goggles to protect your eyes from flying debris.
3. Clean the area to be patched with an asphalt-cleaning compound to remove dust and other particles that may affect the bonding of the patch.
4. Apply asphalt-patching compound to the crack according to the manufacturer's instructions. Be careful to ensure that the required temperature will be maintained throughout the time needed for the material to dry and cure.
5. When the asphalt-patching compound has cured, apply one or more coats of asphalt sealing compound over the repaired section.

A number of potholes in a single area or crumbling of the asphalt at the edge of the trail tread is evidence that the sub-base is damaged. Repairs should not be completed over a damaged sub-base. Instead, cut out the affected area and reconstruct that section of the tread. Reconstruction will require that the base be properly compacted before the asphalt is replaced. In some situations, it may be helpful to install a geotextile underlay on top of the sub-base to increase the stability of the new asphalt layer.

Wooden Tread Structures

Wood trail tread structures require regular maintenance in order to ensure a safe and enjoyable trail experience for all users. In general, the maintenance issues related to trail treads made of wood fall within these categories:

• Deterioration of the wood from environmental factors (e.g., sun, rain).
• Loose, raised or missing hardware (e.g., nails, screws, bolts).
• Erosion of adjacent natural trail surfaces.
• Shifting of the support structure (e.g., due to frost, erosion or water flow).

Wood should be fully dried before being used for trail construction. In Ontario, most lumber will be kiln-dried when purchased. However, lumber obtained from discount sources, directly from a mill or designated as lower quality and wood cut from trees near the trail may shrink substantially as it dries. Frequent inspections should be completed during the first year after construction to identify and repair any warped or loose pieces of wooden tread structures.

Replacing Cracked, Rotten or Damaged Wood

Wood trail treads should be inspected carefully and regularly to ensure that the wood is not cracked, damaged or starting to rot. Any wood pieces that are damaged or show signs of rot should be removed and replaced . Use cedar or other types of wood that are less likely to rot for all replacement materials. Pressure-treated lumber can also be used as long as the wood will not be in contact with the ground (ground contact can cause the preservatives to leach into the surrounding environment). When purchasing pressure-treated lumber be sure to obtain newly manufactured materials that has not been treated with Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA). CCA has been linked to health problems for many people. Since 2004, arsenic, a known cancer-causing agent, has been removed from the chemicals used to treat wood. H owever, building supply companies were, and still are, allowed to sell off existing stocks of CCA treated wood. Today pressure treated wood is typically created with chemicals such as amine copper quat ( ACQ ) or copper azole ( CA ). At the very least, these options are less toxic than CCA. However, some health concerns remain and it is still advisable to take precautionary measures when using wood treated with these chemicals. Lumber companies continue to develop non-toxic wood preservatives. Products using sodium silicate [88] are promising, but not yet available in Ontario.

All of the damaged materials removed from the trail tread should be properly disposed of away from the trail site. Never dispose of pressure treated, painted or treated lumber in the trail environment. The chemicals used to preserve or paint/treat the wood will leach into the environment as the wood rots. Always remove materials from broken wood structures and properly dispose of the material at an authorized site.

While it is usually easy to get trail volunteers to replace broken or rotting pieces of wood decking, it can be much more difficult to generate support for completely replacing damaged support structures (e.g., cracked or rotting bridge stringer). However, it is essential that rotting support structures be removed and replaced . It is not acceptable to "patch" a rotting support structure by anchoring a new support onto the rotting beam. Even if the additional support is anchored well beyond the area that appears rotten, trail workers should remember that wood rots from the inside out. That means, the rot you see is never as extensive as the rot that actually exists . Once a piece of wood starts to rot, there is virtually no way to prevent it from rotting further. Attaching additional supports to a rotting beam will only result in more work when the rot inevitably extends into the area where the new support is anchored. Although it seems like a lot of work, any wood support structures that are damaged or show evidence of rot must be replaced. Remove all of the decking, remove the damaged support, install a new support and then replace the decking .

Replacing or Repositioning Hardware

All hardware used for trail structures should be galvanized so that the hardware does not rust or deteriorate with exposure to the natural elements. The hardware used to join pieces of wood together or to attach wood to other surfaces can loosen with time and trail use. Inspect all hardware regularly to ensure that pieces are not lost or broken. Whenever possible, secure bolts with locking nuts or recess hardware into the wood surface and cover the ends of the screws or nails with wood plugs or putty. Camouflaged hardware is aesthetically pleasing and decreases the risk of vandalism or loss.

Nails often gradually lift over time as pressure is applied to different areas of the wood surface. Straight nails should never be used for trail structures. Galvanized, Ardox nails are less likely to lift because the wood fibres tend to cling to the spiral curves of the nail. Another alternative is to connect the wood pieces with screws rather than nails (although screws are much more expensive). If screws are not threaded on the section of screw that will sit within the wood plank, the screws will be less likely to lift or loosen over time. Ceramic-coated deck screws can also be used to attach decking boards to timber supports.

Transitioning to Adjacent Surfaces

Wooden trail treads must be carefully constructed so that access onto and off of the wood surface is free of steps or tripping hazards . The adjacent surface should be shaped to provide a smooth connection to and from the wood tread. A soil dam is required to separate the wood from the surrounding soils and moisture. Asphalt, crushed rock and soil are the materials most commonly used to create the transition onto or off of a wood surface. Details regarding the construction of approaches to wooden trail structures can be found in Tread Structures Above the Surrounding Terrain . Refer to Guidelines for Trail Design - Tread ) for detailed information on the maximum height between adjacent surfaces and the maximum slope on transition areas.

Shifting Support Structures

Maintaining the Trail Tread: Pieced Surfaces

The maintenance needed to ensure an appropriate tread surface will vary tremendously, depending on the type of pieced surface material used and the permitted users on the trail. Trail surfaces constructed with mechanically crushed rock with a variety of piece sizes are usually less costly to maintain . The key to minimizing maintenance is to ensure that there is adequate soil moisture content for cohesion and that the pieces are mechanically compacted during construction.

Pieced surface materials are generally easier to maintain or repair than solid surfaces . The most significant factor is the availability of additional pieced material to match what is already on the trail. For natural surfaces, additional material may be found on other areas of the trail (e.g., where a downhill berm has been removed) or taken from inconspicuous sites adjacent to the trail corridor. Additional constructed pieced materials and additional natural materials not available on site will have to be transported by trail workers. The transportation of surface materials can significantly increase the amount of work required to maintain a trail tread that is enjoyable and safe to use.

Filling is typically used to repair damage to trail treads made from pieced materials. Pieced materials that are composed of "pieces" that vary in size and have straight or jagged edges (i.e., that have been mechanically crushed or broken) should always be used for the fill material. Mechanically crushed rock with a variety of sieve sizes will compact to a solid surface because the jagged edges "stick" together and the smaller pieces fill the "holes" around the larger pieces. In general, pieced materials should have pieces no larger than 2 cm (0.8 inches) to provide a smooth and sustainable tread surface.

The filling of swales in the trail tread can also be an effective, proactive method of altering drainage to reduce erosion on the tread. However, extreme care is required to ensure that changes to natural drainage patterns do not negatively impact the trail environment. If pieced material is "missing" from eroded sections of the tread or is found at a "wash out" or drainage outlet, determine the source of the water flow and make the necessary changes to restore the natural drainage patterns before repairing the damage to the trail tread.

Naturally occurring pieced materials are less likely to form a firm and stable tread and will require more maintenance because the rounded shape of the pieces makes it much more difficult to properly compact the material into a solid trail tread. For example, "river gravel" is known for providing a trail surface that is "like walking on glass marbles"

To fill a depression in the trail tread :

• Till tread to loosen the existing material.
  Use hoes, picks and other tools to loosen and till the material that forms the trail tread. This will allow the new material to mix and bond well with the existing material. Loosening of the material should be done carefully so that the material is kept on the trail tread.
• Place additional material into the damaged area.
  Use rakes and shovels to move the loose, pieced material into the damaged area of the tread. Distribute the pieced material evenly, mixing it thoroughly with the loosed tread material, in a layer up to 10 cm (4 inches) thick. Shape the loose material so that it blends smoothly with the undamaged sections of the trail tread. Remember, if the original material was altered to improve the stability of the surface it will be necessary to treat the additional material to be added in the same manner. Deliberately compacting the material in 10 cm (4 inches) layers will provide a tread surface that is less likely to further compact under the weight of trail users.
  
• Compact the material.
  Use mechanical compactors (e.g., vibratory plate) to solidly compact the material. Mechanical compaction is the best way to ensure that the tread maintains its intended shape even with heavy trail use. If mechanical compaction is not feasible, tamping tools or the flat side/end of many trail tools can be used to compact the pieced material solidly into the repair area. Trail treads compacted by hand must be monitored on a regular basis to ensure that the required shape of the tread is maintained.
• Repeat addition, shaping and compaction of tread material .
  Continue to add material to the repair area, shape it and then compact the material in 10 cm (4 inches) layers until the repaired area is level with the surrounding tread and the desired tread surface slope is restored.

Maintaining Trail Vegetation

Vegetation on and adjacent to the trail tread plays a vital role in the protection of the trail environment. When vegetation, either canopy or ground cover, is removed from the trail corridor, there is an increased risk of negative environmental impacts (e.g., invasive species, soil erosion, wind damage). However, leaving vegetation to grow naturally across the trail can also result in significant environmental damage as trail users push, break or strip small branches and foliage in order to clear a more enjoyable path.

Trimming and Removing Vegetation

Pruning and brushing vegetation to keep it off of the trail tread is an essential and regular part of trail maintenance, especially in the brushy boreal and mixed wood plains of Ontario. Leafy vegetation should be cleared, not just from the trail tread, but also from an additional buffer zone on either side and above the trail corridor . For hiking only trails, the buffer zone should be a minimum of 0.3 metres (1 foot) in width on both sides and 0.5 metres (1.6 feet) above the trail corridor (i.e., 0.6 metres (2 feet) in addition to the width and height of the trail tread corridor). For trails with uses other than hiking, the size of the vegetation-free buffer will increase, with the minimize size determined by the permitted trail uses. For example, multi-use, non-motorized trails should have a total of at least 3.5 metres (11.5 feet) of vertical and 2.5 metres (8 feet) of horizontal clearance.

The buffer zone is necessary to keep growing vegetation away from trail users even when it is bent down by the weight of rain or snow. In addition, when openings in the foliage are only large enough for the trail user, the surrounding foliage will obstruct the vision of trail users travelling downhill or around a bend . Safe use of the trail requires that trail users have adequate sight lines in front of them so that they can see people they are approaching. Adequate sight lines are particularly important for trail users moving at faster speeds and for the safety of trail users with limited hearing. If necessary, the vegetation-free buffer zone can be made smaller for a short distance in order to protect a specific tree or to skirt around a large boulder. However, whenever possible it is better to design the trail, either initially or through re-alignment, so that the vegetation-free buffer can be maintained through the length of the trail.

The goal in maintaining the vegetation-free zone is to maintain the trail environment so that it appears as natural as possible . A pruning or brushing job done quickly may deal with restoring the function of the trail, but it does not usually provide an aesthetically pleasing result. Avoid the temptation to quickly lop off an intruding branch and throw the debris aside. Grass and other succulent plants can be cut back with weeding tools. Use loppers or pruners to nip brushes and saplings. Make sure that your tools are sharp. Sharp tools are safer to use (i.e., they are less likely to bounce or deflect off the vegetation) and a clean cut is also better for the health of the vegetation.

It is best to maintain vegetation in the spring. Additional maintenance may be required in the summer (if vegetation grows quickly) or fall (if the trail will be used during the winter months). Monitor the growth of new plants to ensure they are not stunted or delayed relative to normal growth conditions. Delays in plant growth can be the first sign of increasing environmental impacts from trail use. In general, saplings less than 10 cm (4 inches) in diameter should be removed from the trail tread and buffer zone. Protect trail users from tripping by cutting stumps flush with the earth.

Trees along the trail will also need to be inspected to ensure that they are healthy and sound. If possible, avoid removing trees from the trail environment. However, diseased or rotting trees have the potential of falling across the trail. If any live or dead tree has the likelihood of falling on the trail it should be removed. Branches that are likely to fall on the trail should also be removed. Felling and removing live trees requires special equipment and skill . Volunteers should utilize appropriately trained personnel if the removal of a tree is required. Similarly, large trees that have fallen across the trail may require the use of a chain saw. Only people certified in the proper use of a chainsaw should perform these tasks. Regardless of your training and experience, never fell trees or operate a chainsaw alone . Always get help.

Watch out for "hazard trees" , snags that are leaning toward the trail and that may fall across the tread. Since dead trees are often home to many forest animals, you should remove them only if they present an immediate danger to trail users , or if maintenance is so infrequent that trees that do fall will cause considerable problems for trail users until someone is able to return. Since trails do not encourage people to stay in one location (like they would at a campsite or picnic area), the probably of a trail user being hit by a falling tree is relatively small. That being said, the recent case of the trail user who was killed at the Royal Botanical Garden has heightened awareness of the danger posed by hazard trees and the importance of optimizing the safety of the trail environment.

There are three basic elements for brushing or pruning trail vegetation in a manner that is most compatible with the natural environment. Each of these elements makes pruning a more tedious maintenance task, but the results in terms of the social sustainability of the trail are worth the extra effort. The three key points for clearing vegetation are:

• Carefully consider what vegetation needs to be cleared.
  Pruning and brushing should be done sensitively so that the trail appears natural. No one wants to use a trail that looks like the site of "a chain saw massacre". Where there are large, mature trees, maintain the canopy over the trail to discourage the growth of underbrush. When you are finished your work, trail users should not be able to tell that maintenance work has been done. Trim back vegetation that is growing over wooden trail structures to prevent early decay of the wooden elements. In some places in Ontario there may be rare or endangered plants on or near the trail. Check to be sure you know what plants are growing on or along your trail.
• Prune to the collar of any branch or stem .
  Pruning to the collar is optimal for the health of the tree or shrub and it also provides a more natural looking result. At the base of any branch there is a wide section that contains a plant's natural healing agents. Any pruning performed away from this collar will expose the plant to a greater risk of infection. A cut at the collar will naturally heal. For large branches over 5 cm (2 inches) in diameter, cut halfway through the branch from the bottom a short distance away from the collar (cut #1 in the illustration) and then cut down from the top of the branch through the collar (cut #2). This prevents tearing of the bark, again reducing the risk of infection.
• Properly place and conceal debris.
  Place debris out of view, remove it from the trail environment or compost it in an appropriate location. Dealing with debris properly requires extra effort, but the result is well worth it. Each cut branch should be touching the ground to promote decomposition. Brush piles are not appropriate. They are not only unsightly, they encourage pests and can become a fire hazard. If debris cannot be removed or composted in an appropriate location, conceal it by dragging branches under and around shrubs. If the debris cannot be completely concealed, place the butt (cut) end of the debris away from the trail as this will help to disguise the debris. Do not toss debris! Branches that are randomly discarded usually end up hanging in adjacent shrubs or trees.

Dealing with Noxious Vegetation

Noxious vegetation, such as poison ivy, stinging nettles or Hawthorne bushes, can have a negative impact on the social sustainability of a trail. For the safety and enjoyment of trail users, noxious vegetation should be removed from the trail corridor and surrounding buffer zone . Every reasonable effort should be made so that trail users, particularly young children and those who might inadvertently go off of the trail (e.g., novice cyclists or in-line skaters), will not come into contact with noxious vegetation. Education should always be the trail user's first defence against noxious vegetation . Ensure that trail information sources (e.g., maps, web sites, guide books, on-trail signs) provide all trail users with accurate information about the potential for contact with noxious vegetation on the trail.

The optimal method of removal will depend on the type of vegetation, the environment in which the trail is located, and local regulations regarding the removal of plant species [89]. When dealing with noxious vegetation, it is essential that trail workers wear proper clothing and safety gear . Tyvek coveralls and cotton gloves under rubber gloves (either alone may lead to inadvertent exposure) are helpful when dealing with irritants, such as poison ivy or water hemlock. Protective gloves are essentially for stinging or thorned plants, such as nettles or hawthorn. Keep first aid materials handy at the trail work site .

General guidelines for removing Ontario's most common noxious plants are:

Nettles
Trim the plant back to the base of the stem twice a year.

Hawthorne
Trim this plant back from the trail and buffer zone. The long spikes are a safety issue for trail users, so make sure that people on or falling beside the trail will not be injured. It is not necessary to remove the entire plant. Hawthorne can continue to grow away from the trail as it has many environmental benefits.

Poison Ivy, Poison Oak, Poison Sumac [90]
An herbicide should be applied by qualified, experienced personnel. Never burn poison ivy plants , as the irritant will be carried in the smoke to everyone in the area. If you don't want to use chemicals, manual removal of the plants will be effective only if you remove every bit of the plant (leaves, vines, roots). Check with your municipality regarding proper disposal of plants. The urushiol (sap that causes the itch) can remain
active for years even after the plant is dead.

Water Hemlock
Consider water hemlock to be extremely toxic . Some books say even contact with the juices can be lethal. The pretty flowers can be attractive to children and inexperienced trail users. All plants that can be seen from the trail should be removed . Experienced workers wearing cotton gloves under rubber gloves and safety coveralls should remove the entire plant (including the roots) and burn it. Research has also shown that repeated flaming of the plants on site can be effective in eradicating water hemlock [91].

Restoring Vegetation to the Trail Environment

People who volunteer to maintain a trail usually think about the work needed to remove vegetation from the trail corridor. The need to add vegetation to the trail environment is less likely to immediately "spring to mind". However, properly maintaining the vegetation within the trail corridor must always be a balance between removal and restoration .

Restoration is about repairing damage to the trail environment that results from trail construction or use . The goal is to improve wildlife habitat and the cleanliness and clarity of water sources, and to restore a healthy ecosystem. The restoration of vegetation can occur for a wide variety of reasons. Most typically, it is used to repair eroded or compacted areas within the trail corridor, to replace invasive species that have been removed or to remove and restore "social trails" or other closed trail segments.

Restoration projects require careful planning , a clear grasp of the breadth of the task, and a strong commitment to achieve the intended goals despite the long time frame that may be involved. The effectiveness of the methods used for restoration may take years to produce results . Trail crews must be satisfied with knowing that they have created the conditions to allow a meadow or a portion of a forest to re-establish itself.

Understanding what has caused the damage is the critical first step in restoring the trail environment and preventing the damage from recurring. If, for example, a trail to a favourite lake is to be closed and restored, learn from the old trail what problems need to be resolved in creating a new trail to the lake.

The timing of work to restore vegetation, relative to the growth cycle, is also critically important . Erosion control blankets or weed free straw or hay bales can be used to stabilize the soil in eroded areas until the new vegetation has been planted and become well anchored. In general, planting should be done in the spring and fall when there is no risk of frost (after risk of frost ends in spring or 30 days before risk of frost in fall) and the soil is naturally wet so the need for watering is minimal.

It is helpful to include information on the state of trail vegetation when maintenance evaluations are completed . Information on the types of plants that grow well along each section of trail can be very useful information when restorative work is being planned.

Depending upon the type and scope of restoration work required, it may be necessary to develop a professional restoration plan. An effective and comprehensive restoration plan will optimize the use of materials and resources and measure the progress and success of the work. Contact your local Ontario Stewardship Council, Conservation Authority or Ministry of Natural Resources District Office for additional information about developing a detailed restoration plan . If the trail is located in an area that is close to a college or university with an environmental program, you may be able to get students to do the restoration plan for your trail as part of their course work.

Site Preparation

Proper site preparation is the key to the success of your restoration effort. Regardless of the overall restoration plan or the extent of the work, the first step in trail environment restoration is to properly prepare the site. To prepare the restoration site:

• Identify areas of erosion .
  Begin by examining the site for any signs of erosion. Severely compacted soil is often so hard that water runs off, carrying precious soil particles. If there is erosion on the site, the source of the problem needs to be identified and every effort should be made to restore the water flow to the natural drainage channel . Once the natural drainage pattern has been restored, site restoration can begin (see Maintaining Proper Trail Drainage ).
• Install visual barriers to hide the restoration area.
  Once you have controlled the erosion problems at the site, install visual barriers to hide the area and deter further human impacts. Rocks, logs and snags can be used to create the visual barriers. The placement of the visual barriers should be deliberate to allow for in filling of the area by other plants. Large rocks, which match the area landscape and cannot be easily moved, can be embedded in the restoration site to deter people from walking through the site. The rocks will also lessen the effects of sun, wind, snow and rain. Logs that are decaying are ideal for restoration projects. Firmly set in restoration sites they can provide a barrier to trampling and an inviting environment for new plants starting to grow. A larger log standing upright in the earth can be an effective method of creating a visual barrier in the airspace above the restoration site. The snag (i.e., large log or fake stump) must be very solidly embedded in the ground to ensure that it cannot be moved by the forces of wind, snow or human "ingenuity".

Soil Preparation

Once the restoration site has been properly prepared and "hidden" from view by visual barriers, the next step is to prepare the soil for the renewed vegetation. The two key issues for soil preparation are soil compaction and soil composition.

• Soil Compaction.
  Soil that is compacted will not absorb water or air. Roots will be unable to penetrate into it and seeds will not be able to germinate. Compacted soil must be loosened so that the new vegetation can take root. Using a pick, mattock or shovel, dig into the compacted soil so that it becomes loose and open to a depth of approximately 15 cm (6 inches). Do not turn the soil over . The topsoil must be kept intact at the surface in order for plants to grow.
• Soil Composition .
  To improve soil composition it may be necessary to add more soil. During trail construction, save any excess soil by stock piling it for re-use at restoration sites. Be careful to ensure that this transferred or re-used soil is of similar composition to the soil that naturally occurs in the restoration area. Stock piled soil should be used within six months. Adding fertile soil to a restoration site can quickly erase the scar of construction/rehabilitation and provide an environment for new growth to take root. If wildlife has left deposits of well-aged tailings or castings from burrowing activities near the restoration site, this material can also be spread over the site where additional soil is needed in order for vegetation to grow.

Check dams are a popular, though generally ineffective, instrument of trail maintenance. In theory, a check dam (a barrier across the trail such as a bale of hay or a large log or rock) is intended to slow the velocity of water flowing down the trail, thereby reducing erosion. In reality, check dams only halt erosion in a very small area (less than 1 metre or 3.3 feet) uphill of the check dam and they usually accelerate erosion immediately below and beside the dam. Although check dams should never be used to control trail drainage , they can be used to increase soil deposition at restoration sites where it is difficult or impossible to find or import the required material. Using a large burlap bag filled with moist topsoil, as a check dam can be an effective method of increasing soil deposition. By cutting an "X" into the top of the bag, a local shrub can also be planted in the soil [92].

If soil preparation requires the use of check dams:

• Install them at intervals of less than 1 metre (3.3 feet) so that the flow of water across the site is stalled momentarily at each check dam. This will allow the sediment carried in the water to be deposited on the uphill side of the check dam.
• Make sure they are tall enough to trap sediment and securely anchored so they cannot be shifted by water flow.
• Remove the check dams once there is sufficient deposition of soil on the restoration site. As the check dam is removed, great care must be taken to stabilize the soil deposits so that the erosion will not re-occur.

Planting, Transplanting and Seeding

The final step in restoring vegetation to a trail environment is the actual planting, transplanting or seeding of the new vegetation. Seeding and transplanting are the most common methods of re-vegetation. Consider the growing cycle of the plants in the trail environment in order to determine the best time for planting, transplanting and seeding to be completed.

Experts familiar with the local site conditions should be used to determine the native species to be planted and the best methods for planting, transplanting or seeding effectively. Whenever possible, use plant material growing in the area for re-vegetation . Plants already growing in the area will have adapted to the local environment and, therefore, have a much greater chance of successfully establishing themselves in the new location. Be aware that some land management agencies will have specific requirements for new vegetation, including that species are genetically consistent.

Planting

Planting techniques are used to introduce new vegetation that has been purchased from a commercial supplier. Typically there are two types of plants: those that have bare roots and those that have their roots buried in soil (e.g., root ball, container plants). The steps for planting differ slightly between the two types.

To plant new vegetation:

• Dig a hole that is twice as wide and at least as deep as the root system or 15 cm (6 inches) deeper tha